Chapter -1

Introduction
DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF IRRIGATION
Irrigation is the science of artificial application of water to the land, in
accordance with the crop requirements throughout the crop period for
full nourishment of the crops.
Generally, the following are some of the factors that necessitate
irrigation
 Inadequate rainfall
 Uneven distribution of Rainfall
 Increasing the yield of the crops
 Growing a number of crops
 Insuring against drought
 Growing perennial crops
 1. Introduction
⁜Irrigation Engineering is not only confined to the application of water to
the land for raising crops but it extends all aspects from watershed –
agricultural field.

⁜It deals with hydrology, river engineering, design and construction of

dams, weirs, canals and various other hydraulic and irrigation structures.

⁜Various aspects of Irrigation Engineering are:

1. Water resources and hydrology aspect
2. Engineering Aspect
3. Agricultural aspect
4. Management Aspect
BENEFITS AND ILL- EFFECTS OF
IRRIGATION
There are various direct and indirect advantages of
irrigation.
1. Increase in food production
2. Optimum benefits
3. Elimination of mixed cropping
4. General prosperity
5. Generation of hydroelectric power
6. Domestic water supply
7. Facilities of communication
Ill-effects of irrigation
Ill-effects of irrigation occur only when the scheme is not properly
designed and implemented
Some of the common ill-effects are
Water logging
Long term application of pesticides
Causing outbreak of disease like malaria
Irrigation is complex and expensive
IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA
Ethiopia is the “water tower” of North Eastern Africa but
there is food shortage (0.5-1 Million tone/year) specially
inTime
Eastern and Northern part.
Area Coverage Crop type Location
Prior to 1980 Large state Cotton and Selected areas
farms sugarcane
1980 85,000 Awash valley
 Historical Back Ground
In 1956 water resource development (WRD) was established within
Ministry of public works
In 1962 Awash valley Authority (AVA) was established
In 1971 National Water Resources Commission (NWRC) was
established
In 1977 Valleys agricultural development authority (VADA) was
created
In 1981 NWRC strengthened to absorb functions of VADA
The Water Sector Development program of MoWR (2002) organizes
irrigation schemes in Ethiopia under four different ways with sizes
ranging from 50 to 85,000 ha
 Rivers Basin Mean Ground potentia Net area
area annual water l gross Under
(Km)2 Vol.x109 potential irrigabl irrigatio
Irrigation potential m3 x109m3 e
area(ha)
n(ha)

Awash 112696 4.60 0.14 205400 69900

Abay 204000 52.62 1.80 1001550 21010
(Blue
Nile)
Baro- 75912 11.81 0.13 600000 350
Akobo
Rift 52739 56.3 0.10 139300 12270
valley
lakes
Omo- 79000 17.96 0.10 86520 27310
Gibe
Genale- 17104 5.88 0.03 423300 80
dawa
Wabi- 202697 3.16 0.04 204000 20290
Shebell
e
Tekeze 865000 8.20 0.02 189500 1800
Oaden 72121 0.86 - - -
Denakil 62882 0.86 - 3000 -
Aysha 2223 0.22 - - -
Mereb- 5700 0.65 0.05 67560 8000
Gash
 Major irrigation methods

IrrigationMethods

Surface Irrigation Sub surface irrigation Pressurizedirrigation

Border Natural Sprinkler

Check basin Artificial Drip/ Trickle

Furrow
 Functions of Irrigation water

The function of soil moisture/irrigation water in plant growth are

diversified
1. It adds water to the soil to supply the moisture essential for plant
growth
2. Some salt present in soil react to produce nourishing food products
only in the presence of water
3. Water cools the soil and the atmosphere and thus makes more
favorable environment for healthy plant growth.
4. Irrigation water, with controlled supplies, washes out or dilutes salts
in the soil
5. It reduces the hazard of soil piping
6. It softens tillage pans
Standards of irrigation water

Irrigation water may be said to be unsatisfactory for its intended

use if it contains:
Chemicals toxic to plants or the persons using plant as food
Chemicals that react with the soil to produce unsatisfactory
moisture characteristics
Bacteria injurious to persons or animals eating plants irrigated with
water.
There are two main causes of salinity: Salinity caused by the
supply of irrigation water and Salinity caused by the upward
movement of water and salts,
Why irrigation systems also require drainage systems?
a) Sediment
b) Total concentration of soluble salts
c) PH
d) Proportion of sodium ions to other cations
e) Potentially toxic elements
 USDA Triangular soil Textural classification Chart
3%

 Sandy soil
 Clay soil
 Loamy soil
 Silt soil
25%

72%
Sandy Clay Loam
Fig. 2.3: USDA textural triangle
Soil Structure
Arrangement and organization of soil particles in the soil and the tendency of
individual soil particles to bind together into aggregates.
The arrangements of soil aggregates give soil its structure.
Grouping of particles into structural units occur in all soils.
However, the strength of the bonds, the size and the shape of the structural units and
the proportion of the soil particles involved in the units differ considerably among
soils.
 Soil Structure development is influenced by:
- Amount and type of clay, exchangeable ions on the clay.
- Amount and type of organic matter.
- Presence of iron and aluminum oxides (cementing agents)
- Binding between organic and inorganic compounds (aluminum oxides, cations,
clays).
- Vegetation: produces OM, roots act as holding soil together, and protects soil
surface.
 The overall quality of the soil structure may be evaluated in terms of its:
porosity, aggregation, cohesiveness, permeability for water or air.
 It has a pronounced effect on soil properties such as:
Erodibility,
Porosity,
Hydraulic conductivity,
Infiltration, and
Water holding capacity
 Volume and mass relationships
Volume Mass
Relations Relations

Vt Vs Vw Va

M t M s  M w  M a

Fig. 2.4: Schematic diagram of the soil as a three-phase system

Bulk density -  b
Mass per unit volume of soil comprising the solid and gaseous phase in
exclusion of the liquid phase is called bulk density.
That means it describes the soil as it is in the natural state including pore
spaces. In other words, bulk density is the weight of oven dry soil per unit total
volume.
It is sometimes referred to as apparent specific gravity.
Ms Ms
b  
Vt Vs  Va  Vw 
Bulk density (gm/cm3) while apparent specific gravity (dimensionless).
Bulk density is normally expressed on a dry weight basis : 1.0 – 1.8 gm/cm 3
for mineral soils.

Particle density -  s
Ms
s 
Vs
Thus the particle density of any soil is constant and does not vary with the amount of
space between the particles. It is defined as the mass (weight) per unit volume of soil
particles (soil solids).
Total porosity is influenced by textural characteristics of soil and ranges from 35 to 50
% in sandy soils and from 40 to 60 % in clayey soils.
 Soil Water Content
Soil water content is expressed on mass basis or volume basis. It is measured using
gravimetric, neutron scattering, gamma ray, capacitance method, time domain
reflectometer.

1. Gravimetric method (on mass or volume basis)

Mass basis:
W2  W3
w 100
W3  W1
W1 = weight of empty aluminium box, gm
W2 = weight of box + moist soil sample, gm
W3 = weight of box + dried soil sample, gm
 Cont…

Volume basis:
Vw Vw b
  v w
Vt Vs  V f  w
The gravimetric method is still the most widely used technique to determine
the soil water content and is often taken as a standard for the calibration of
other methods.
A disadvantage is that it is laborious, because samples in duplicate or in
triplicate are required to compensate for errors and variability.
2. Neutron-Scattering
The neutron-scattering method is based on fast-moving neutrons emitted by a
radioactive source, usually 241Am, which collide with nuclei in the soil and lose
energy.
A detector counts part of the slowed-down reflected (thermal) neutrons.
Because hydrogen slows down neutrons much more than other soil constituents,
and since hydrogen is mainly present in water, the neutron count is strongly
related to the water content.
We use an empirical linear relationship between the ratio of the count to a
standard count of the instrument, which is called the count ratio, and the soil-
water content.
 Cont…
The standard count is taken under
n
standard conditions, preferably in a
pure water body.
The empirical relationship is given
by:  a b R

R = the count ratio (-)

a and b = soil specific constants (-)
Fig. 2.5: Neutron probe to measure soil-water content
Constant a in Equation increases with bulk density; constant b is influenced by
soil chemical composition (Gardner 1986).
Advantages:
Soil-water content can be measured rapidly and repeatedly in the same place;
Average soil-water content of the sphere of influence can be measured with
depth;
Temporal soil-water content changes can easily be followed;
Relation between count ratio and soil-water content is linear.
Disadvantages are:
Counts have a high variability; measurement is not completely repeatable;
Poor depth resolution;
Measurements are interfered with by many soil constituents;
The use of a radioactive source can pose health risks if no appropriate care is
taken.
Measurements near the soil surface are impossible.
3. Capacitance methods

a-holder
b-electrodes
c- cable
d-connector

A probe with conductive plates or rods surrounded with soil constitutes the capacitor. The
relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of water is large compared with that of the soil
matrix and air.
 A change in the water content of the soil will cause a change in the relative
permittivity, and consequently in the capacitance of the capacitor (probe)
surrounded with soil.
 The capacitor is usually part of a resonance circuit of an oscillator. Changes
in the soil-water content, and thus changes in the capacitor capacitance, will
change the resonance frequency of the oscillator.
 In this way, the water content is indicated by a frequency shift.
The capacitance method is based on measuring the capacitance of a capacitor, with the
soil-water-air mixture as the dielectric medium.

4. TDR (Time Domain Reflector-meter) method

 A method that also uses the di-electrical properties of the soil.
 The propagation time of a pulse travelling along a wave guide is measured.
 This time depends on the di-electrical properties of the soil surrounding the wave guide,
and hence on the water content of the soil.
The TDR method can be used for many soils without calibration, because the relationship
between the apparent dielectric constant and volumetric water content is only weakly
dependent on soil type, soil density, soil temperature, and salt content .
Time-domain reflectrometry has become popular in recent years.
 Types of soil water
1. Gravitational water
- When sufficient water is added to soil, water gradually fills the pore system
expelling air completely from soil.
- Water moving downwards through soil under gravity.
- The water tension at this stage is 0.33 atm. or less.
2. Capillary water
-With increasing supply of water, the water film held around soil particles
thickens.
- Water enters the pores until the soil-water tension equal to the gravity force.
- This soil water tension is about 0.10 – 0.33atm.
- This water is available to plants.
- Factors that influence the amount of capillary water in the soil are the
structure, texture and organic matter content of the soil.
- capillary water in fine soils > Capillary water in course soils.
- Optimum growth of plant takes place when the soil water is maintained at
near field capacity
3. Hygroscopic water
- The water that an oven dry soil absorbs.
- Water held tightly to the surface of soil particles by adsorption forces.
- Occurs as a very thin film over the surface of soil particles.
- Held tenaciously at a tension of 31 atmospheres.
Fig. Types of soil - water
-
Saturation

Gravitational
water
Field capacity

Capillary water
(Plant available
water)
Permanent welting
Unavailable point
water
Hygroscopic coeff.
Hygroscopic Air dry
water
Oven dry

Fig. 2.5: Illustration of soil water constants

 Basic concepts of soil - water Dynamics
Forms of energy recognized in soil-water movement are:
1. The kinetic Energy- due to motion of water through soil layer.
- negligible due to the slow motion
2. The potential Energy – due to position of soil-water within soil body &
internal conditions.
- responsible in determining soil-water status.
The magnitude the force is the difference b/n soil water potential at two
different points.
The potential energy is defined w.r.t the reference state.
- Pure and free water ( no solute , no external force other than gravity)
arbitrarily equal to zero.
Components of soil-water forces
Soil water is subject to several force fields – results in deviation from the
reference state (total soil water potential).

Total soil water potential:the amount of work that an infinitesimal unit

quantity of water at equilibrium is capable of doing work when it moves
(isothermally and reversibly) to a pool of water at similar standard
(reference)
 The primary forces acting on soil water held within a rigid soil matrix
under isothermal conditions can be conveniently grouped as:
i - Matric forces: resulting from interactions of the solid phase with the liquid
and gaseous phases;
e.g. adsorptive forces and capillary forces
- capillarity caused by liquid–gas interfaces
- adhesion of water molecules to solid surfaces
- ion hydration and water participating in diffuse double layers - clay layers
.
Adsorptive forces
Adsorptive forces cause water molecules adsorbed on clay particles

Fig. 2.6: Schematic diagram of two water molecules.

Cohesion water & adhesion water
 Discuss Cohesion force & Adhesion force
Capillary force:
 F =  cos  * 2r
F = r2 hw * g
 At equilibrium, the upward force F1 equals the downward force F2 and water movement
stops.

 cos  x 2r = r2 hw x g

 cos  2r 2 cos 

h 
 r h w g
2
 w gr
Relationship between capillary raise and
soil texture
ii - Osmotic forces: owing to differences in chemical composition of soil
solution;
- Soil water …dissolved salts + other solutes →soil solution

- Presence of solutes in soil water decreases the potential energy of water in the
soil.

- The potential energy of water in the solution is lower than the reference state
(pure water).
-
Excess gas
pressure

Salt
solution Pure water

Semi-permeable
membrane

When a solution is separated by a semi-permeable membrane from pure water or form a

solution of lower concentration, water tends to diffuse or osmose into the concentrated
solution through the membrane.
Cont…
Osmotic pressure - ╥
Osmotic potential
1
 O  
w
iii- Body/Gravitational forces:
Induced by gravitational and other (e.g., centrifugal) inertial force fields.
Compare to matric & osmotic forces
 Soil-water potential Concept
The effect of a force on soil water may conveniently be described by potential energy of
soil water in a particular force field.

The forces governing soil-water flow can be described by the energy concept.

 According to this principle, water moves from points with higher energy status to points
with lower energy status.

 The energy status of water is simply called 'water potential'.

 Cont…
The forces acting on a mass of water in any particular direction are then
defined as :
Fs 

m s

Fs = total of forces (N)

m = mass of water (kg)
s = distance between points (m)
 = water potential on mass base (J/kg)
The total soil water potential can be written as:

 t  m   O   g
t = total potential
m = matric potential
O = osmotic potential
g = gravitational potential
ht  hm  hO  hg
OR
•The matric head (hm) in unsaturated soil is negative

In soil-water studies, we can very often neglect the influence of the osmotic head.
H = hm + z where H = hydraulic head (m) , z = elevation head (m)
Cont…
Cont…
Cont..
Cont…
 !!!
ND
E E
TH