Brain & Behaviour

Chapter 2
Lecture prepare by Ng Zhi Kuan
[Link]@[Link]
Slide adapted from Mr Alexius Cheang
 Outline
The Nervous System
The Cerebral Cortex
The Subcortex
The Endocrine System

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 Neuron’s Parts
• Soma: Cell body; body of the neuron. Receives
messages and sends messages down axon
• Axon: Fiber that carries information away from
the cell body of a neuron
• Dendrites: Receive messages from other
neurons
• Synapse: Microscopic space between two
neurons over which messages pass
 Neurotransmitters
• Chemicals that alter activity in neurons; brain
chemicals
• Receptor site: Area on the surface of neurons and
other cells that is sensitive to neurotransmitters or
hormones
• Types of neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine: Activates muscles
• Dopamine: Reward and muscle control
• Serotonin: Mood and appetite control
• Endorphins: Reduces pain
 Neuroplasticity
• The brain can be changed, both
structurally and chemically, by experience
• Rat studies show that an “enriched”
environment leads to larger neurons
with more connections
• Has also been shown in humans
• Recent research has uncovered evidence of
neurogenesis, or the production of new
brain cells, in human brains
The Nervous System

The nervous system is a complex network of cells and

tissues that transmit messages between different parts
of the body. It is responsible for coordinating and
controlling all of the body's functions, from basic
reflexes like blinking to complex processes like thinking
and decision-making.

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 Neural Networks
• Central nervous
system (CNS): Consists
of the brain and spinal
cord
• Peripheral nervous
system: All parts of the
nervous system outside
of the brain and spinal
cord
Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Brain: responsible for processing information,

coordinating responses to stimuli, and regulating
bodily functions
• Spinal cord: relays information between the brain and
the rest of the body, and coordinates reflexes

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• Somatic nervous system: controls voluntary movements and transmits sensory information
from the body to the CNS
• Autonomic nervous system: regulates involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate,
digestion, and breathing
• Sympathetic nervous system: responsible for the body's "fight or flight" response to stress or
danger
• Parasympathetic nervous system: responsible for promoting "rest and digest" activities, such
as digestion and relaxation
• Cranial nerves: 12 pairs of nerves that originate in the brain and extend to various parts of
the head and neck, controlling functions such as vision, hearing, and facial movement
• Spinal nerves: 31 pairs of nerves that branch out from the spinal cord and control movement
and sensation in the rest of the body

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Psychologically

• The CNS, particularly the brain, is responsible for a wide range of mental processes,
including perception, cognition, emotion, and behavior. For example, different regions of
the brain are specialized for processing different types of sensory information, such as
vision or hearing, and for carrying out various cognitive functions, such as attention,
memory, and decision-making. Dysfunction or damage to different areas of the brain can
result in changes in personality, mood, and behavior.
• The PNS also plays a role in an individual's psychology by modulating bodily functions
that can impact mental states. For example, the sympathetic nervous system, which is
part of the PNS, is responsible for the body's "fight or flight" response to stress, which
can lead to feelings of anxiety and fear. The parasympathetic nervous system, on the
other hand, helps to promote relaxation and calmness.

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Support and improve the functioning

• Get regular exercise: Exercise has been shown to improve both CNS and PNS functioning. It can help to reduce
stress, improve cognitive function, and enhance mood.
• Get enough sleep: Adequate sleep is essential for maintaining healthy CNS and PNS function. Try to get 7-8 hours
of sleep per night, and establish a regular sleep schedule.
• Eat a healthy diet: A well-balanced diet that includes plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean protein
can help to support healthy CNS and PNS function.
• Manage stress: Chronic stress can have negative effects on both the CNS and PNS. Engage in stress-reducing
activities, such as yoga, meditation, or deep breathing exercises.
• Stay socially engaged: Maintaining social connections can help to improve both CNS and PNS function. Spend time
with friends and family, and participate in social activities that you enjoy.
• Engage in mental stimulation: Activities that challenge the brain, such as puzzles, learning a new skill, or reading,
can help to improve cognitive function and support healthy CNS function.
• Seek professional help if needed: If you are experiencing symptoms of a mental health disorder or other
neurological conditions, seek help from a healthcare provider. They can provide appropriate treatment and support
to improve CNS and PNS function.

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 Cerebral Cortex
• Definition: Outer layer of the brain;
contains 70% of neurons in CNS
• Cerebrum: Two large hemispheres
that cover upper part of the brain
• Cerebral hemispheres: Right and
left halves of the cortex
• Corpus callosum: Bundle of fibers
connecting cerebral hemispheres
The Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex is responsible for many of the

higher cognitive functions, including perception,
thought, memory, and consciousness. The cerebral
cortex is divided into four main lobes: the frontal lobe,
the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital
lobe.

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 The frontal lobe
The frontal lobe is located at the front of the brain
and is responsible for higher-level thinking and
decision-making. This includes planning, problem-
solving, and controlling impulses. For example, if
you are trying to decide what to eat for dinner,
your frontal lobe is responsible for weighing the
options and making a decision.

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Frontal Lobe• Controls movement, sense of smell,
higher mental functions
• Contains primary motor cortex; controls
motor movement
• Prefrontal cortex: involved in sense of self,
reasoning, and planning
• Aphasia: Language disturbance resulting
from brain damage
• Broca’s Area: Related to grammar and
pronunciation
• If damaged, person knows what s/he
wants to say but can’t say the words
2-Minute Neuroscience: Broca's Area
The frontal lobe

• To improve the functionality of the frontal lobe, you can

engage in activities that require planning, problem-solving,
and decision-making. Examples of such activities include
playing strategy games like chess or solving complex
puzzles. Additionally, practicing mindfulness and meditation
can help improve impulse control and emotional regulation,
which are both functions of the frontal lobe.

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 The parietal lobe
The parietal lobe is located in the middle of the
brain. It is Primary somatosensory cortex:
Receiving area for bodily sensations and is
responsible for processing sensory information,
such as touch, temperature, and pressure. For
example, when you touch a hot stove, your
parietal lobe is responsible for processing the
sensation of heat.

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The parietal lobe

• To improve the functionality of the parietal lobe, you

can engage in activities that stimulate your senses,
such as playing a musical instrument or practicing a
sport that involves hand-eye coordination.
Additionally, practicing mindfulness and focusing on
your senses can help improve sensory processing and
spatial awareness.

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 The temporal lobe
The temporal lobe is located on the sides of the
brain and is responsible for processing auditory
information, including language. It is also involved
in memory formation and emotion regulation. For
example, if you are listening to music, your
temporal lobe is responsible for processing the
sounds and making sense of them.

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Temporal Lobe
• The auditory center and for humans,
language centers
• Primary auditory area: Auditory
information is first registered here
• Wernicke’s Area: Related to
language comprehension; in left
temporal lobe
• If damaged, person has problems with
meanings of words, NOT pronunciation
2-Minute Neuroscience: Wernicke's Area
The temporal lobe

• The temporal lobe is located on the sides of the brain

and is responsible for processing auditory information,
including language. It is also involved in memory
formation and emotion regulation. For example, if you
are listening to music, your temporal lobe is
responsible for processing the sounds and making
sense of them.

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 The occipital lobe
The occipital lobe is located at the back of the brain
and is responsible for processing visual
information. It helps us see and recognize shapes,
colors, and patterns. For example, if you are
looking at a sunset, your occipital lobe is
responsible for processing the colors and shapes
of the sky.

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Occipital Lobe
• Back of brain; vision center
• Primary visual area: Part of
occipital lobe that first receives
input from the eyes
• Visual Agnosia: Inability to
identify seen objects
• Facial Agnosia: Inability to
perceive familiar faces
Visual Agnosia Facial Agnosia
The occipital lobe

• To improve the functionality of the occipital lobe, you

can engage in activities that stimulate your visual
senses, such as drawing, painting, or photography.
Additionally, practicing visualization and mental
imagery exercises can help improve visual memory
and perception.

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References

• Bear, M. F., Connors, B. W., & Paradiso, M. A. (2016). Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain.
Wolters Kluwer.
• Carlson, N. R. (2013). Physiology of behavior. Pearson Education.
• Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., & Jessell, T. M. (2000). Principles of neural science.
McGraw-Hill.
• Purves, D., Augustine, G. J., Fitzpatrick, D., Katz, L. C., LaMantia, A. S., McNamara, J. O.,
& Williams, S. M. (2018). Neuroscience. Sinauer Associates, Inc.
• Purves, D., Augustine, G. J., Fitzpatrick, D., Katz, L. C., LaMantia, A. S., McNamara, J. O.,
& Williams, S. M. (2018). Neuroscience. Sinauer Associates, Inc.
• Bear, M. F., Connors, B. W., & Paradiso, M. A. (2016). Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain.
Wolters Kluwer.)

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The Subcortex

The subcortex is the lower part of the brain that is

situated beneath the cerebral cortex. It includes
several structures that are involved in many important
functions, such as regulating basic bodily processes,
controlling movement, and processing emotions.

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Subcortex: Hindbrain (Brainstem)
• Consists of:
• Medulla: Controls vital life functions
such as heart rate, swallowing, and
breathing
• Cerebellum: Regulates posture, muscle
tone, and muscular coordination
• Pons: Influences sleep and arousal
• Reticular formation: Associated with
alertness, attention, and some reflexes
(breathing, coughing, sneezing, vomiting)
 Subcortex: Forebrain
• Structures are part of the limbic system, the system
within the forebrain closely linked to emotional
response and motivating behavior
• Thalamus: Relays sensory information on the way
to the cortex; acts as a switchboard
• Hypothalamus: Regulates emotional behaviors and
motives (e.g., sex, hunger, rage, hormone release)
• Amygdala: Associated with fear responses
• Hippocampus: Associated with storing permanent
memories; helps us navigate through space
References

• Purves, D., Augustine, G. J., Fitzpatrick, D., Hall, W. C.,

LaMantia, A. S., McNamara, J. O., & Williams, S. M.
(2008). Neuroscience (4th ed.). Sinauer Associates.
• Bear, M. F., Connors, B. W., & Paradiso, M. A. (2016).
Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain (4th ed.). Wolters
Kluwer.
• Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., & Jessell, T. M. (2013).
Principles of Neural Science
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(5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
Presentation Title 32
The endocrine system

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands

and organs that produce and secrete hormones into the
bloodstream. Hormones are chemical messengers that
regulate many of the body's functions, such as growth
and development, metabolism, and reproduction.

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 Endocrine System
• Glands that pour chemicals • e.g. Pituitary gland:
Regulates growth via
(hormones) directly into the
growth hormone
bloodstream or lymph system
• Its hormones influence
other endocrine glands
 Pituitary Problems
• Too little growth hormone means person will be smaller
than average
• Hypopituitary dwarfism: As adults, perfectly
proportioned but tiny
• Too much growth hormone leads to gigantism
(excessive body growth)
• Acromegaly: Enlargement of arms, hands, feet, and
facial bones; due to too much growth hormone secreted
late in growth period
• Pituitary also governs functioning of other glands,
 Other Glands
• Pineal gland: Regulates body rhythms and sleep
cycles
• Releases the hormone melatonin, which responds to
daily variations in light
• Thyroid gland: In neck; regulates metabolism
• Hyperthyroidism: Overactive thyroid; person tends
to be thin, tense, excitable, nervous
• Hypothyroidism: Underactive thyroid; person tends
to be inactive, sleepy, slow, obese, and depressed
 The Adrenal Glands
• Adrenals: Arouse body, regulate salt balance,
adjust body to stress, regulate sexual
functioning; located on top of kidneys
• Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine (also
known as adrenaline and noradrenaline)
• Epinephrine arouses body; is associated with
fear
• Norepinephrine arouses body; is linked with
anger
References

• Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. H. (2017). Principles of

Anatomy and Physiology (15th ed.). John Wiley &
Sons.
• Guyton, A. C., & Hall, J. E. (2015). Textbook of Medical
Physiology (13th ed.). Elsevier.
• Sherwood, L. (2016). Human Physiology: From Cells to
Systems (9th ed.). Cengage Learning.
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