Introduction to
Semiconductor Materials
Electronic Materials
• The goal of electronic materials is to
generate and control the flow of an
electrical current.
• Electronic materials include:
1. Conductors: have low resistance which allows
electrical current flow
2. Insulators: have high resistance which
suppresses electrical current flow
3. Semiconductors: can allow or suppress
electrical current flow
Conductors
• Good conductors have low resistance so
electrons flow through them with ease.
• Best element conductors include:
– Copper, silver, gold, aluminum, & nickel
• Alloys are also good conductors:
– Brass & steel
• Good conductors can also be liquid:
– Salt water
Conductor Atomic Structure
• The atomic structure of
good conductors usually
includes only one electron
in their outer shell.
– It is called a valence electron.
– It is easily striped from the
atom, producing current
flow.
Copper
Atom
Insulators
• Insulators have a high resistance so current
does not flow in them.
• Good insulators include:
– Glass, ceramic, plastics, & wood
• Most insulators are compounds of several
elements.
• The atoms are tightly bound to one another so
electrons are difficult to strip away for current
flow.
Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are materials that essentially can
be conditioned to act as good conductors, or
good insulators, or any thing in between.
• Common elements such as carbon, silicon, and
germanium are semiconductors.
• Silicon is the best and most widely used
semiconductor.
Semiconductor Valence Orbit
• The main characteristic
of a semiconductor
element is that it has
four electrons in its
outer or valence orbit.
Crystal Lattice Structure
• The unique capability of
semiconductor atoms is
their ability to link
together to form a
physical structure called
a crystal lattice.
• The atoms link together
with one another sharing
their outer electrons.
• These links are called
covalent bonds. 2D Crystal Lattice
Structure
3D Crystal Lattice Structure
Semiconductors can be Insulators
• If the material is pure semiconductor material like silicon,
the crystal lattice structure forms an excellent insulator
since all the atoms are bound to one another and are not
free for current flow.
• Good insulating semiconductor material is referred to as
intrinsic.
• Since the outer valence electrons of each atom are
tightly bound together with one another, the electrons
are difficult to dislodge for current flow.
• Silicon in this form is a great insulator.
• Semiconductor material is often used as an insulator.
Doping
• To make the semiconductor conduct electricity,
other atoms called impurities must be added.
• “Impurities” are different elements.
• This process is called doping.
Semiconductors can be Conductors
• An impurity, or element
like arsenic, has 5 valence
electrons.
• Adding arsenic (doping)
will allow four of the
arsenic valence electrons
to bond with the
neighboring silicon atoms.
• The one electron left over
for each arsenic atom
becomes available to
conduct current flow.
A presentation of [Link]
Resistance Effects of Doping
• If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping,
there will be lots of extra electrons so the
resistance of the material will be low and
current will flow freely.
• If you use only a few boron atoms, there will
be fewer free electrons so the resistance will
be high and less current will flow.
• By controlling the doping amount, virtually
any resistance can be achieved.
Another Way to Dope
• You can also dope a semiconductor
material with an atom such as
boron that has only 3 valence
electrons.
• The 3 electrons in the outer orbit
do form covalent bonds with its
neighboring semiconductor atoms
as before. But one electron is
missing from the bond.
• This place where a fourth electron
should be is referred to as a hole.
• The hole assumes a positive charge
so it can attract electrons from
some other source.
• Holes become a type of current
carrier like the electron to support
current flow.
Types of Semiconductor Materials
• The silicon doped with extra electrons is called
an “N type” semiconductor.
– “N” is for negative, which is the charge of an
electron.
• Silicon doped with material missing electrons
that produce locations called holes is called “P
type” semiconductor.
– “P” is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.
Current Flow in N-type Semiconductors
• The DC voltage source has a
positive terminal that attracts
the free electrons in the
semiconductor and pulls
them away from their atoms
leaving the atoms charged
positively.
• Electrons from the negative
terminal of the supply enter
the semiconductor material
and are attracted by the
positive charge of the atoms
missing one of their
electrons.
• Current (electrons) flows
from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal.
Current Flow in P-type Semiconductors
• Electrons from the negative
supply terminal are attracted
to the positive holes and fill
them.
• The positive terminal of the
supply pulls the electrons
from the holes leaving the
holes to attract more
electrons.
• Current (electrons) flows
from the negative terminal to
the positive terminal.
• Inside the semiconductor
current flow is actually by the
movement of the holes from
positive to negative.
In Summary
• In its pure state, semiconductor material is an excellent
insulator.
• The commonly used semiconductor material is silicon.
• Semiconductor materials can be doped with other atoms to
add or subtract electrons.
• An N-type semiconductor material has extra electrons.
• A P-type semiconductor material has a shortage of electrons
with vacancies called holes.
• The heavier the doping, the greater the conductivity or the
lower the resistance.
• By controlling the doping of silicon the semiconductor
material can be made as conductive as desired.