B.

TECH FIRST YEAR

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2024-2025

Course name: EES

Course code : EEE 1002
lecture series no : 01 (one)
Credits : 4
Mode of delivery : online (Power point presentation)
Faculty :
Email-id :
PROPOSED DATE OF DELIVERY:
 “Recall concept of
Session outcome Semiconductors”
 Assignment
quiz
mid term examination –I
mid term examination –II
Assessment criteria
END TERM EXAMINATION
 PROGRAM
OUTCOMES
MAPPING WITH CO1
[[EC1001.1]. Apply principles of
physics to describe the working of
semiconductor devices. ]

[PO1]

Engineering knowledge: Demonstrate and apply

knowledge of Mathematics, Science, and Engineering to
classical and recent problems of electronic design &
communication system.
Introduction to Semiconductors
Objective of the lecture: Define a
semiconductor – no. of electrons in outer
shell, location on periodic table, most
commonly used ones etc.
 Introduction
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical
properties lie between Conductors and
Insulators.

Ex : Silicon and Germanium

Give the examples of Conductors and

Insulators!

Difference in conductivity
Semiconductor Materials: Ge, Si,
and GaAs
Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a
conductivity between that of a good conductor and
that of an insulator.
• They fall into two classes : single crystal and compound
• Single crystal : Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si).
• Compound : gallium arsenide (GaAs),
cadmium sulfide (CdS),
gallium nitride (GaN),
gallium arsenide
phosphide (GaAsP)
The three semiconductors used most frequently in the
construction of electronic devices are Ge, Si, and GaAs.
 Energy Levels

The farther an electron is from the nucleus, the higher is

the
energy state.
 Energy Levels

An electron in the valence band of silicon must absorb more energy than
one in the valence band of germanium to become a free carrier. [free
carriers are free electrons due only to external causes such as applied
electric fields established by voltage sources or potential difference.
 Majority and Minority
carriers
Two currents through a diode:
Majority Carriers
•The majority carriers in n-type materials are electrons.
•The majority carriers in p-type materials are holes.
Minority Carriers
•The minority carriers in n-type materials are holes.
•The minority carriers in p-type materials are
electrons.
 pn Junction
• This cannot occur in the case of the charged particles in a p-n junction because of the development
of space charge and the electric field ()
As electrons diffuse from the n region, positively charged donor atoms are
left behind. Similarly, as holes diffuse from the p region, they uncover
negatively charged acceptor atoms. These are minority carriers.
The net positive and negative charges in the n and p regions induce
an electric field in the region near the junction, in the direction from
the positive to the negative charge, or from the n to the p region.

The net positively and negatively charged regions

are shown in Figure. These two regions are referred to as the space charge
region (SCR). Essentially all electrons and holes are swept out of the space
charge region by the electric field. Since the space charge region is depleted
of any mobile charge, this region is also referred to as the depletion region
Density gradients still exist in the majority carrier concentrations at each edge of the space charge region.
This produce a "diffusion force" that acts the electrons and holes at the edges of the space charge region.
The electric field in the SCR produces another force on the electrons and holes which is in the opposite
direction to the diffusion force for each type of particle. In thermal equilibrium, the diffusion force and the
E-field () force exactly balance each other.
 p-n Junctions
At the p-n junction, the excess
conduction-band electrons on the
n-type side are attracted to
the valence-band holes on the p-
type side.

The electrons in the n-type

material migrate across The result is the formation of a
the junction to p-type
the material depletion region around the junction.
(electron flow).
Anode Cathode
P N
The electron migration results in a
negative charge on the p-type
side of the junction and a positive
charge on the n-type side of the
junction.
 Diodes
The diode is a 2-terminal A diode ideally conducts in
device. only one direction.
Diode Operating • No bias
Conditions •
•
Forward bias
Reverse bias

Reverse bias Forward bias

Diode Operating
Conditions
No Bias

• No external voltage is applied: VD = 0 V

• No current is flowing: ID = 0 A
• Only a modest depletion region exists
 Diode Operating Conditions

Forward Bias
External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in
the same polarity as the p- and n-type materials.

• The forward voltage causes the depletion region

to narrow.
• The electrons and holes are pushed toward the p-n
junction.
• The electrons and holes have sufficient energy to
cross the p-n junction.
 Forward Bias
Voltage
The point at which the diode changes from no-bias condition
to forward-bias condition occurs when the electrons and holes
are given sufficient energy to cross the p-n junction. This
energy comes from the external voltage applied across the
diode.

The forward bias voltage required for a:

• gallium arsenide diode  1.2 V

• silicon diode  0.7 V
• germanium diode  0.3 V
 Diode Operating Conditions
Reverse Bias
External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in
the opposite polarity of the p- and n-type materials.

• The reverse voltage causes the depletion region to

widen.
• The electrons in the n-type material are attracted
toward the positive terminal of the voltage source.
• The holes in the p-type material are attracted toward
the negative terminal of the voltage source.
Diode Equivalent
Circuit
 Diode is often replaced by its equivalent circuit during
circuit
analysis and design
 Equivalent circuit is obtained by replacing the
characteristic curve by straight-line segments
A

K
1/RF A K Forward bias
RF
RR =  Vγ
A K Reverse bias
Vγ
Diode
equation

•Where
•VT : is called the thermal voltage.
•Is : is the reverse saturation current.
•VD : is the applied forward-bias voltage across the diode.
n : is a factor function of operation conditions and
construction.
physical It has range between 1 and 2. assume n=1
unless otherwise noted.
K : is Boltzman’s constant =1.38 x 10-23
T: is temperature in kelvins = 273+temperature in C.
q : is the magnitude of electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19 C.
Diode
characteristics
I (mA) Diode symbol

P N

Reverse saturation
current
(magnified)
Vγ V (volts)
1
Cut-in or knee Vγ is 0.2 ~ 0.3 for Ge
Breakdown voltage 0.6 ~ 0.7 for Si
(μA)
Temperature dependence of diode
characteristics

 Reverse saturation current approximately doubles for every

10 degree rise in temperature

I o 2  I o 1 2(T2T )1 /10
• Where, Io1 is reverse sat current at temperature T1 and
I02 is reverse sat current at temperature T2
• Cut-in voltage decreases with increase in temperature
Exercise Problems:

1. A Silicon diode has a saturation current of 0.1pA at 20OC. Find its forward voltage
when the current is 0.3mA.

Given Is = 0.1 pA, T= 20 C, ID = 0.3mA ƞ =2

= 1.1024 V

2. A Germanium diode has IO=10μA at room temperature 27OC. Determine its forward
voltage when it is carrying 50mA of current. Compute the static and dynamic
resistance at this operating point. ( Ans: 2.2026 V, 44Ω, 0.51Ω)

3. Calculate the factor by which reverse saturation current IO of Germanium diode is

multiplied when the temperature increases from 25 to 100OC
 Load-Line Analysis
 The analysis of diode can follow one of two paths: using the actual characteristics or applying an
approximate model for the device.

 Load Line Analysis: is used to analyse diode circuit using its actual characteristics.
 Load-Line Analysis
 A straight line is defined by the parameters of the network.
 It is called the load line because the intersection on the vertical axes is defined by the applied load R.
 Load-Line Analysis
 The maximum I equals E/R, and the maximum V equals E.
D D
 The point where the load line and the characteristic curve intersect is the Q-point, which identifies I
D
and V D for a particular diode in a given circuit.
 Diode Clippers

Clippers are networks that employ

diodes to “clip” away a portion of an
input signal without distorting the
remaining part of the applied waveform.
Diode Clippers

Determining vo for the diode in

the “on” state.
 Example:
Determine the output waveform for the network.

Solution
 Example:
Determine the output waveform for the network.

Solution
 Parallel Clippers
The diode in a parallel
clipper circuit “clips” any
voltage that forward bias it.

DC biasing can be added in

series with the diode to
change the clipping level.
 Example:
Determine vo for the network shown.
Solution
 Example:
Determine vo for the network if Si
diode is used.
Solution

Determining vo for the diode in the

“on” state.
Examples:
Examples:
 CLAMPERS

A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a

resistor, and a capacitor that shifts a waveform to
a different DC level.
 CLAMPERS
R is chosen such that the discharge
period 5τ=5RC is much larger than the
period T/2→T, and the capacitor is
assumed to hold onto all its charge.

Diode “on” and the capacitor Determining vo with the diode

charging to V volts. “off.”
CLAMPERS
 Example
Determine vo for
the network.

Solution

Determining vo and VC with the diode in the “on” state. Determining vo with the diode in the “off” state.
Example
 Clamper circuits

Clamping circuits with ideal diodes (5τ = 5RC >> T/2).

 Thanks
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