Chapter 2:

Biological Foundations: Heredity,

Prenatal Development, and Birth

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Icebreaker: Brainstorm

Students should break into teams and brainstorm what they would say in the following
scenarios

• Imagine that a friend is trying to decide what to put in their birth plan. What advice would you
give them about their choice?
• Who would you suggest they have in the room?
• What about an epidural—would you suggest they get one?
• Do you think there should be a recording of the birth?

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Chapter Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

2.1 Describe human chromosomes, genetic disorders, as well as interactions between heredity
and environment
2.2 Describe the periods of the zygote, embryo, and fetus
2.3 Describe how general risk factors and teratogens affect prenatal development
2.4 Describe the three stages of childbirth, birth complications, and infant mortality

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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2.1: In the Beginning: 23 Pairs of
Chromosomes

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Key Questions

• What are chromosomes and genes? How do they carry hereditary information from one
generation to the next?
• What are common problems involving chromosomes, and what are their consequences?
• How is children’s heredity influenced by the environment in which they grow up?

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Mechanisms of Heredity: Chromosomes

• Mechanisms of heredity:
• Human eggs contain 23 chromosomes selected from the female parent’s 46
• Human sperm contain 23 chromosomes selected from the male parent’s 46
• Think of it as mixing two hands of cards
(1 from mother and 1 from father), shuffling this mix, and then dealing a hand of cards
• The dealt hand is your 23 pairs of chromosomes

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Mechanisms of Heredity:
Egg and Sperm United

• The human egg and sperm unite, resulting in a zygote that contains a complete set of 23
paired chromosomes (46 in total)
• The 46 chromosomes contain around 25,000 genes
• Autosomes are the first 22 pairs of chromosomes
• Sex chromosomes: 23rd pair determines the child’s sex assigned at birth
• Males: XY chromosomes: X from mother, Y from father
• Females: XX chromosomes: X from mother, X from father

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Mechanisms of Heredity: Genotype and Phenotype

• Genotype: complete set of genes one has inherited

• Phenotype: combination of genotype and environmental influences resulting in the actual
expression of traits
• Physical
• Behavioral
• Psychological

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Mechanisms of Heredity: Alleles

• The interaction of genes on each pair of chromosomes produces traits

• Alleles: different forms in which genes come
• Each allele carries instructions for a specific variation on a trait
• Homozygous alleles: When alleles are the same, both parents have contributed similar
genes for a trait
• Example: both parents contribute the allele instructions for the same colored eyes
• Heterozygous alleles: The parents have contributed different versions of the trait
• Example: one parent contributes the allele for blue eyes and the other for brown eyes

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Mechanisms of Heredity: Dominant vs. Recessive
Alleles

• Certain alleles are dominant over other alleles

• The dominant allele’s instructions are followed, but the recessive is ignored
• Other alleles are recessive
• Recessive instructions are followed only if both alleles are recessive (one form of a
homozygous condition)
• Incomplete dominance can lead to a phenotype that falls between the phenotypes
associated with the dominant and the recessive alleles
• Example: a mild form of the sickle-cell trait that appears under vigorous physical
exertion

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 Single-Gene Inheritance

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Two Types of Genetic Disorders

• Inherited disorders: often involve two recessive alleles

• Examples: sickle-cell disease, PKU
• …but some involve a dominant allele
• Example: Huntington’s disease
• Abnormal chromosomes: extra, missing, or damaged chromosomes that result in abnormal
development
• Examples: Down syndrome, Turner’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome

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 Heredity, Environment, and Development

• Behavioral genetics
• Studies the inheritance of behavioral and psychological traits
• Complex, because most traits are the result of many genes (allele pairs) instead of only
one gene or allele pair

• Polygenetic inheritance
• When many genes affect the phenotype of a physical, psychological, or behavioral trait
• strongly expressed with more alleles that are dominant in the combination and weakly
expressed with more recessive alleles in the combination

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Behavioral Genetics: Mechanisms and Methods (1
of 2)

• Dizygotic or fraternal twins: result from two different eggs fertilized by two different sperm
• No more genetically similar than other siblings
• Monozygotic or identical twins: result from the union of one egg and one sperm that splits in
two soon after conception
• Are genetically identical
• Either type of twin may share much of the same experience and environment
• Scientists compare identical and fraternal twins to measure the influence of heredity

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Paths from Genes to Behavior

• Heredity and environment interact dynamically throughout development

• Heritability coefficients
• Genes can influence the kind of environment to which a person is exposed
• Niche-picking
• Environmental influences typically make children within a family different
• Nonshared environmental influences

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Think, Pair, Share Activity:
Genotypes, Phenotypes, and Environment

With a partner, identify each of the following as either a phenotype, a genotype, or an

environmentally determined characteristic.
Some might be more than one!
Eye color
Height
Autosomes
Your vocabulary
A heterozygous recessive allele

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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2.2: From Conception to Birth

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 17
 Key Questions 1.1

• What happens to a fertilized egg in the first two weeks after conception?
• When do body structures and internal organs emerge in prenatal development?
• When do body systems begin to function well enough to support life?

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Periods of Prenatal Development

• Prenatal development takes an average of 38 weeks

• Time measured from date of conception
• Conception typically occurs about two weeks after the pregnant parent’s last menstrual
period
• Divided into three periods:
• Period of the zygote (weeks 1–2)
• Period of the embryo (weeks 3–8)
• Period of the fetus (weeks 9–38)

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Periods of Prenatal Development: The Zygote

• Period of the zygote (weeks 1–2):

• After fertilization (natural or in vitro), the zygote travels down the fallopian tube and is
implanted in the uterine wall
• Implantation triggers hormonal changes to prevent menstruation
• Center of zygote contains the germ disc
• Cells that develop into a baby
• Other cells form the placenta, which supports the baby’s development

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Events of the Period of the Zygote

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Periods of Prenatal Development: The Embryo (1
of 2)

• Period of the embryo (weeks 3–8):

• Body structures, internal organs, and the three layers of the embryo develop:
• Ectoderm (outer layer: becomes hair, skin, nervous system)
• Mesoderm (middle layer: becomes muscles, bones, circulatory system)
• Endoderm (inner layer: becomes digestive system and lungs)

• The amniotic sac fills with fluid; the umbilical cord connects the embryo to the placenta
• Allows exchange of nutrients, oxygen, vitamins, and waste products between mother
and embryo

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 Periods of Prenatal Development: The Embryo (2
of 2)

• Growth of the embryo follows two important principles:

• the cephalocaudal principle, where the head develops before the rest of the body
• the proximodistal principle, in which growth of parts near the center of the body occurs
before those that are more distant

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Periods of Prenatal Development: The Fetus (1 of
2)

• Period of the fetus (weeks 9–38):

• Begins at week 9 and ends at birth
• Fetus becomes much larger and bodily systems begin to function
• Final development of many systems essential to human life occurs
• All regions of the brain grow, particularly the cerebral cortex
• Week 9: differentiation of the ovaries and testes

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Periods of Prenatal Development: The Fetus (2 of
2)

• Period of the fetus (weeks 9–38)

• Week 12: circulatory system begins to function
• Week 16: movements felt by mother
• Week 20: eyebrows, eyelashes, scalp hair
• Skin thickens and is covered by protective greasy substance (vernix)
• Weeks 22–28: age of viability
• Weeks 22 and beyond: senses active; fetus can remember voices, music, tastes

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Think, Pair, Share Activity: Zygote, Embryo, Fetus

• With a classmate, discuss which stage of prenatal development is most important: zygote,
embryo, or fetus? Why? What standards are you using to form your opinion?
• Keep in mind, there is no right or wrong answer

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 2.3: Influences on Prenatal
Development

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 27
 Key Questions 1.2

• How is prenatal development influenced by a pregnant person’s age, nutrition, and the stress
experienced while pregnant?
• How do diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards sometimes affect prenatal development?
• What general principles affect the ways that prenatal development can be harmed?
• How can prenatal development be monitored? Can abnormal prenatal development be
corrected?

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Teratogens: Drugs, Diseases, and Environmental
Hazards (1 of 2)
• Teratogens: drugs, diseases, or environmental hazards causing abnormal prenatal development

• Drugs (Examples: alcohol, aspirin, caffeine, and nicotine)

• Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
• Nicotine use increases likelihood of miscarriage, low birth weight, birth defects

• Diseases (Examples: AIDS, cytomegalovirus, genital herpes, rubella (German measles), syphilis)
• Some (cytomegalovirus, rubella, syphilis) attack the fetus directly through the placenta; others
(AIDS, genital herpes) attack the fetus during birth
• Medications that may help treat a woman after she becomes ill do not prevent damage to the
fetus

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Teratogens: Drugs, Diseases, and Environmental
Hazards (2 of 2)

• Environmental Hazards (Examples: air pollution, lead, PCBs, X-rays)

• Exposing the fetus to environmental hazards such as polluted air, lead, and PCBs can affect
both physical and mental development of the fetus before birth and of the child after birth
• Can also lead to the child developing health issues such as leukemia after birth

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 How Teratogens Influence Prenatal Development

• The effect of the teratogen depends upon the genotype of the organism
• The impact of teratogens changes over the course of prenatal development
• Each teratogen affects a specific aspect of prenatal development
• The impact of teratogens depends on the dosage
• Damage from teratogens is not always evident at birth

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Discussion Activity: Teratogens

• List one or two consequences of exposure to each of the following teratogens during prenatal
development:

Alcohol
Nicotine
Lead
Rubella

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment

• Genetic counseling
• Prenatal diagnosis
• Ultrasound
• Amniocentesis
• Chorionic villus sampling
• Non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT)
• Fetal therapy
• Administering medicine to the fetus
• Fetal surgery to correct spina bifida and circulatory problems
• Genetic engineering involves replacing defective genes with synthetic normal genes

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 2.4: Labor and Delivery

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Key Questions 1.3

• What are the different phases of labor and delivery?

• What are “natural” ways of coping with the pain of childbirth? Is childbirth at home safe?
• What adjustments do parents face after a baby’s birth?
• What are some complications that can occur during birth?
• What contributes to infant mortality in developed and less developed countries?

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 Stages of Labor

• Stage 1 (12–24 hours before birth):

• Contractions become increasingly
stronger and more rhythmic
• Cervix enlarges to ~10 centimeters
• Stage 2 (<1 hour before birth):
• Baby passes through cervix to vagina
• Baby’s head appears (crowning); birth
• Stage 3 (minutes after birth):
• Placenta is expelled

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Approaches to Childbirth

• Prepared childbirth
• Classes to explain pregnancy and delivery processes
• Teach relaxation and coaching techniques to manage pain without using anesthetics
• Anesthesia limits pregnant person’s ability to push
• One percent of births are at home

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 Adjustment to Parenthood

• 1–2 weeks after birth: 50% experience irritation, resentment, and crying, reflecting stress and
physiological changes
• Months after birth: 10–15% experience postpartum depression; may affect baby
• Low self-worth, irritability, disturbed sleep, poor appetite, apathy
• Risk factors: high hormonal levels; pre-pregnancy depression, stress, lack of support
• Breastfeeding reduces risk

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 Birth Complications

• Hypoxia (inadequate blood and oxygen to baby)

• Complications may necessitate Cesarean section (C-section)
• Births before week 36: premature or preterm
• Low birth weight: 5.5 pounds or less
• Very low birth weight: less than 3.3 pounds
• Extremely low birth weight: less than 2.2 pounds

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Infant Mortality

• Infant mortality rate: percentage of

infants who die before the age of 1 year
• U.S. mortality rate is 5 infant deaths out of
1,000 live births
• 26 industrialized nations have lower
infant mortality than the United States
• Possible factors:
• low birth weight due to lack of free or
inexpensive prenatal care
• fewer paid leaves of absence for pregnant
people

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Discussion Activity:
Infant Mortality at Home and Abroad

• 26 industrialized nations have lower infant mortality than the United States
• What factors contribute to this statistic?
• Can you envision a United States in which infant mortality is no longer a problem? What
changes might you make to address this issue?

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Self-Assessment

Think back to the start of the chapter when you brainstormed about the most mysterious part
of early human development. On your own, write down the following:

• Which parts of development are the clearest to you now?

• Which parts are still mysterious or confusing? Are there any concepts you found challenging in
this section?
• Are there still things about early human development that you’d like to learn?

If time allows, answers can be shared with the class to facilitate a discussion.

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 42
 Summary

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Describe human chromosomes, genetic disorders, and interactions between heredity and
environment
• Describe the periods of the zygote, embryo, and fetus
• Describe how general risk factors and teratogens affect prenatal development
• Describe the three stages of childbirth, birth complications, and infant mortality

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 43