Chapter 5:

Entering the Social World:

Socioemotional Development in
Infancy and Early Childhood

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 Icebreaker: Brainstorm

As a class, brainstorm what social and emotional factors are the most important when taking
care of a newborn
• What do you think caregivers need to do to ensure a newborn feels safe?
• How would you personally take care of a new baby if needed (either yours, or someone else’s
that you were asked to watch for a while)?
• When do you think babies start to recognize their caregivers? How would you know?

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 Chapter Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

5.1 Describe growth of attachment during infancy
5.2 Summarize the course of emergent emotions in infancy and toddlerhood
5.3 Describe the development of play and prosocial behaviors in early childhood
5.4 Describe the development of gender stereotypes, gender differences, and gender typing

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 5.1: Beginnings: Trust and
Attachment

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Key Questions 1.1

• What are Erikson’s first three stages of psychosocial development?

• How do infants become emotionally attached to mother, father, and other significant people
in their lives?
• What are the different kinds of attachment relationships, how do they arise, and what are
their consequences?

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 Erikson’s Stages of Early Psychosocial
Development

• Basic trust vs. mistrust (0–12 months)

• With a proper balance of trust and mistrust, infants can acquire hope, which is openness to
new experiences tempered by wariness that occurs when trust and mistrust are in balance
• Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1–3 years)
• A blend of autonomy, shame, and doubt gives rise to will, which is the knowledge that
within limits, youngsters can act on their world intentionally; this happens when autonomy,
shame, and doubt are in balance
• Initiative vs. guilt (3–5 years)
• In this stage, purpose is achieved with a balance between individual initiative and a
willingness to cooperate with others

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 Steps Toward Attachment

• According to Bowlby, children who form an attachment, or an enduring socioemotional

relationship to an adult, are more likely to survive
• Bowlby proposed four stages of attachment:
• Preattachment stage (birth to 6–8 weeks), when the infant’s behaviors and the responses
they evoke in adults create an interactive system
• Attachment in the making (6–8 weeks to 6–8 months), when babies begin to behave
differently in the presence of unfamiliar caregivers and familiar adults; begin to identify
primary caregiver as person they can depend on
• True attachment (6–8 months to 18 months), when most infants have singled out their
attachment figure as a special individual who serves as their socioemotional base
• Reciprocal relationships (18 months on), when infants begin to act as partners in the
attachment relationship

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 Forms of Attachment

• Ainsworth’s Strange Situation paradigm:

• Three phases (~3 minutes each)
• Child and mother first occupy an unfamiliar room filled with toys; then a stranger enters
• Mother leaves room momentarily and then the stranger talks to and approaches baby;
comforts if needed
• Mother then returns to room
• This is repeated
• Observe child’s reactions during each phase
• Classified four types of attachment
• Three insecure types; one secure

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 Four Types of Attachment Relationships

• Secure attachment (60–65%): baby may or may not cry upon separation; wants to be with
mom upon her return and stops crying
• Avoidant attachment (20%): baby not upset by separation; ignores or looks away when
mom returns
• Resistant attachment (10–15%): separation upsets baby; remains upset after mom’s return
and is difficult to console
• Disorganized (disoriented) attachment (5–10%): separation and return confuse the baby;
reacts in contradictory ways (e.g., seeking proximity to the returned mom, but not looking at
her)

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 Consequences of Attachment

Infant–parent attachment lays the foundation for all the infant’s later social relationships
• Secure attachment:
Prototype for later successful relationships
• Non-satisfying first relationship:

More prone to problems in their social interactions as preschoolers

• School-age children are less likely to have behavior problems if they have successful
attachment relationships

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 Think, Pair, and Share Activity: Attachment

Students should find a partner for this activity

You just learned that there are four types of attachment relationships, and that your attachment
early in life can affect your later life relationships. Discuss the following questions with a
partner after taking a minute to think about your answers:
• Does it surprise you that early attachment impacts later life relationships? Why or why not?
• Can you think of an example from your own life (either you or someone you know) where you
have seen this happen?
• How does this affect how you’d like to act with children in your life, either now or in the
future?

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 What Determines Quality of Attachment?

• Secure attachment results from predictable, sensitive, and responsive parenting

• Infants develop an internal working model, a set of expectations about parents’
availability and responsiveness
• Positive model: When parents are dependable and caring, babies develop an internal
working model in which they believe their parents are concerned about their needs and
will try to meet them
• Negative model: When parents respond slowly, intermittently, or angrily, infants come
to see social relationships as inconsistent and frustrating
• Parental training helps parents interact more affectionately, responsively, and sensitively

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 5.2: Emerging Emotions

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 Key Questions 1.2

• At what ages do children begin to express basic emotions?

• What are complex emotions, and when do they develop?
• When do children begin to understand other people’s emotions? How do they use this
information to guide their own behavior?

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 The Function of Emotions

• Emotions have functional (adaptive) value (e.g., guiding behavior and facilitating
relationships)
• Theorists distinguish complex from basic emotions
• Basic emotions consist of a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt
behavior
• Joy, sadness, anger, fear, distress, disgust, interest, and surprise all occur by 8–9
months
• Studying infants’ facial expressions and overt behaviors reveals their probable trajectory

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 Development of Basic Emotions

• Newborns: pleasure and distress

• 2–3 months: sadness
• 2–3 months: social smiles occur upon seeing a human face, sometimes accompanied by
cooing
• 6 months: anger
• Reflects an increasing understanding of goals and their frustration
• 6 months: stranger wariness occurs; this is the first distinct sign of fear—when infants are
wary around unfamiliar adults
• Adaptive as a natural restraint against wandering away from familiar others

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 Emergence of Complex Emotions

• Complex emotions include guilt, embarrassment, pride, regret, and shame

• To be experienced, child first must understand the self and behavior in relation to whether
they have met standards or expectations
• This self-understanding emerges around 15–18 months
• Complex emotions emerge at 18–24 months

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 Later Developments

• With increasing cognitive development, children experience basic and complex emotions in
more and different situations
• Regret and relief are expressed by 5 or 6 years of age
• By 9 years, these emotions are being expressed appropriately (cognitive growth)
• Reasons for fear shift from the dark and imaginary creatures to school, health, and
personal harm

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 Discussion Activity: Childhood Fears

The following can be discussed as a class

Think back to your own childhood
• What were you afraid of? If you are comfortable, please share!
• Do you remember your fears changing with age?
• Do you still have any of the same fears that you did at age 4 or 5?

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 Cultural Differences in Emotional Expression

• Many basic and complex emotions are expressed similarly around the world
• Expressing emotions differs across cultures
• Asian children are encouraged to show emotional restraint
• European American 11-month-olds cried and smiled more than Chinese infants of same
age

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 Recognizing and Using Others’ Emotions

• 4–6 months: differentiate among faces expressing happiness, sadness, and fear
• Engage in social referencing, a behavior in which infants in unfamiliar or ambiguous
environments look at an adult for cues to help them interpret the situation
• Factors contributing to children’s understanding of emotion:
• Parents and children frequently discussing past emotions (especially negative ones, such
as fear and anger)
• Parents explaining how feelings differ and feelings’ situational elicitors
• Positive and rewarding relationship with parents and siblings

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 Regulating Emotions

• Emotion regulation is controlling what one feels and how to communicate feeling
• Dependent on cognitive processes, including redirecting attention and reappraisal of the
situation
• Not all children regulate their emotions well
• Those who regulate emotions poorly tend to have problems, including more frequent
conflicts with peers, less satisfying peer relationships, and less adaptive adjustment to
school

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5.3: Interacting with Others

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 Key Questions 1.3

• When do youngsters first begin to play with each other? How does play change during infancy
and the preschool years?
• What determines whether children help one another?

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 The Joys of Play

• 6 months: babies look, smile, and point at each other

• 12 months: children begin parallel play, in which children play alone but are keenly
interested in what others are doing
• 15–18 months: children begin simple social play, in which children do similar activities and
talk or smile at each other
• 24 months: children begin cooperative play, theme-based play where children take special
roles

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 Make-Believe

• Pretend play promotes language, memory, reasoning, and understanding the thoughts,
beliefs, and feelings of others
• Cultural influences:
• India and Peru—parents do not routinely engage in pretend play with their children, and
children do not begin pretend play until older
• The content of pretend play reflects cultural values
• European American children—adventure and fantasy
• Korean American children—family roles and everyday activities

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 Think, Pair, and Share Activity: Imaginary Friends

Students should find a partner in the class for this activity

Make-believe is an enormous part of childhood play, and part of that for some children is
imaginary friends. With your partner, discuss the following:
• Did you have an imaginary friend?
• If you did, what do you remember about them?
• If not, did any kids you knew have them?
• Why do you think so many children have imaginary friends? Based on what you’ve learned so
far, why do they disappear as people age?

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 Solitary Play

• Usually not an indicator of problems

• Can reflect social avoidance or uneasiness with others for which professional help should be
sought if child
• Wanders aimlessly among others
• Hovers over others who are playing

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 Gender Differences in Play

• 24–36 months: children spontaneously prefer playing with same-sex peers

• Gender-typed play styles differ, such as
• Boys prefer rough and tumble, competition, and dominance
• Girls are more cooperative, prosocial, and conversation oriented
• Girls’ actions are more enabling; their actions and remarks tend to support others and
sustain the interaction
• Boys’ actions are more constricting; one partner tries to emerge as the victor by
threatening or contradicting the other or by exaggerating, for example

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 Parental Influence

• Parental involvement in child’s play can lead to later improved peer relations when parents
serve as:
• Playmate: actively interact with their child, use the opportunity to scaffold their children’s
play
• Social director: create opportunities for social interactions with other children
• Coach: help their children learn how to initiate interactions, make joint decisions, and
resolve conflicts
• Mediator: when conflict occurs, help children iron out these conflicts

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 Helping Others

• Prosocial behavior is any behavior that benefits another person

• At 18 months, children recognize others’ distress signals and will try to comfort them
• Prosocial behavior typically increases with development: adolescents are more likely to help
than children, who are more likely to help than preschoolers

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 Skills Underlying Prosocial Behavior

• Perspective taking: accurate perception of another’s physical, social, or emotional viewpoint

as distinct from one’s own
• Empathy, the actual experiencing of another’s feelings, is related to perspective taking
• The state and trait of empathy promote helping

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 Situational Influences

Children tend to act prosocially when they:

• feel responsible for the person in need (Feelings of responsibility)
• believe that they have the skills to help the person in need (Feelings of competence)
• are happy or feeling successful, but not when they are sad or feeling as if they have failed
(Mood)
• share it is typically with members of their own group than with children that are not in their
group (Group membership)
• being prosocial would only entail few or modest sacrifices (Costs of prosocial behavior)

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 The Contributions of Heredity

• Prosocial behavior is more similar in identical twins than fraternal ones

• Genes influence aspects of temperament related to prosocial behavior
• Some children are aware of another’s need, but either:
• Feel so distressed that they cannot figure out how to help due to poor emotion
regulation skills
• Their inhibition (shyness) prevents them from helping, despite knowing how

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 Socialization of Prosocial Behavior

• Children are more prosocial and/or empathic when parents:

• Model warmth and concern for others, and are cooperative, helpful, and responsive
• Use reason while disciplining, stating how children’s actions affect others
• Provide children opportunities to behave prosocially in and outside the home

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5.4: Gender Roles and Gender
Identity

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 Key Questions 1.4

• What are our stereotypes about males and females?

• How well do they correspond to actual differences between boys and girls?
• How do young children learn gender roles?
• How are gender roles changing? What further changes might the future hold?

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 Images of Men and Women: Facts and Fantasy

• All cultures have gender stereotypes, which are beliefs and images about males and
females which may not necessarily be true
• Social role: cultural guidelines as to how we should behave, especially with others
• Gender roles are among the first learned
• Learning gender stereotypes
• Our world is not gender neutral
• At 18 months: girls and boys look longer at gender-stereotyped pictures of toys
• At 4 years: extensive knowledge of gender-stereotyped activities and some behaviors or
traits

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 Gender-Related Differences

• How do boys and girls actually differ?

• Verbal ability: girls have larger vocabularies and are more talkative; boys are more likely to
have language-related problems
• Mathematics: girls are more advanced than boys in elementary school, but other
differences are very small
• Spatial ability: boys are more advanced in mental rotation skills
• Memory: girls and women have better memory; boys navigate more accurately than girls
• Social influence: girls are more likely than boys to comply with the directions of adults
• Relational aggression: aggression used to hurt others by undermining their social
relationships; more common in girls
• Emotional sensitivity and expression: girls are better at identifying and expressing emotion
• Effortful control: girls are more skilled at regulating behavior and focusing attention
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 Gender Typing

• Parents are equally warm and encouraging to boys and girls

• Parents model and differentially reinforce “appropriate” gender-typed behaviors
• Results support social learning theory
• Parental differences
• Fathers, more than mothers, treat sons and daughters differently
• Encourage gender-related play
• Punish their sons more but accept their daughter’s dependence
• Mothers tend to respond based on each child’s need, and fathers respond based on gender
stereotypes

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 Gender Identity

• Gender identity is the sense of self as male or female

• In gender-schema theory, children want to learn more about an activity or object only after
deciding if it’s masculine or feminine
• Children decide if objects, activities, or behaviors are “male” or “female” and then decide
whether they should learn more
• After children understand gender, they focus on gender-typical activities; their choices shift
along gender-specific lines
• This changes over time; by elementary school, most children know that gender roles are
flexible
• A small number of preschool children are gender nonconforming; of these, children whose
gender nonconformity is the greatest are most likely to transition socially and become
transgender

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 Biological Influences

• Evolutionary theory: men and women evolved different traits and behaviors adaptive to their
unique investments (e.g., childrearing for women and resource provision for men)
• Identical twins are even more similar than fraternal twins in preference for sex-typical toys
and activities
• Sex hormones are key players in gender-role learning and help explain genetic disorders:
• Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a genetic disorder in which the adrenal glands
secrete large amounts of androgen
• Affects baby girls in that it can enlarge the clitoris to resemble a penis
• Androgen also affects prenatal development of brain regions critical for masculine and
feminine gender-role behavior

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 Evolving Gender Roles

• Gender roles are changing and have evolved over time

• Studies of nontraditional families indicate that some components of gender stereotypes are
more readily changed than others and more readily influenced by experience than others
• Even so, the cultural changes of the past few decades won’t erase thousands of years of
evolutionary history; some differences will remain

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 Discussion Activity: Changing Gender Roles

The class should discuss the following as a group

As just mentioned, gender roles are evolving over time
• What gender roles have you seen change in your lifetime?
• What do you think still needs to change?
• Why do you think these roles persist so strongly over time?

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 Self-Assessment

Students should find something to write with for this activity and answer the following
Attachment is the foundation of social and emotional development in many ways, so it’s
important to understand it clearly. Please write down your answers to the following:
• What are the four attachment styles?
• How does each react in Ainsworth’s Strange Situation?
• What cultural differences are seen related to attachment?

Once you go through this on your own, you can swap with a partner to compare results or
discuss as a class if time allows. If there’s something that is unclear, ask for clarification!

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 Chapter Summary

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
5.1 Describe growth of attachment during infancy
5.2 Summarize the course of emergent emotions in infancy and toddlerhood
5.3 Describe the development of play and prosocial behaviors in early childhood
5.4 Describe the development of gender stereotypes, gender differences, and gender typing

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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 46