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Introduction to IOT

 The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects that contain
embedded technology to communicate and sense or interact with their
internal states or the external environment

 The range of applications on these gadgets such as messaging,

video calling,
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games,
music streaming,
video streaming, and others are solely dependent on network provider-
allocated Internet access or WiFi
 IoT is an anytime, anywhere, and anything (as shown in Figure 4.2) network of
Internet-connected physical devices or systems capable of sensing an
environment and affecting the sensed environment intelligently
 IoT may be considered to be made up of connecting devices, machines, and tools
these things are made up of sensors/actuators and processors, which connect to
the Internet through wireless technologies

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 Typically, IoT systems can be characterized by the following features :

• Associated architectures, which are also efficient and scalable.

• No ambiguity in naming and addressing.

• Massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes, mobile devices, and

non-IP devices.

• Intermittent and often unstable connectivity

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 The IoT, as we see it today, is a result of a series of technological paradigm shifts over a few
decades.

The technologies that laid the foundation of connected systems by achieving easy
integration to daily lives, popular public acceptance, and massive benefits by using
connected solutions can be considered as the founding solutions for the development of
IoT

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 • ATM: ATMs or automated teller machines are cash distribution machines, which are
linked to a user’s bank account. The first ATM became operational and connected online
for the first time in 1974.

• Web: World Wide Web is a global information-sharing and communication platform.

The Web became operational for the first time in 1991.

• Smart Meters: The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became operational
in early 2000. These power meters were capable of communicating remotely with the
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process of billing and power allocation from grids.
 • Digital Locks: Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier attempts at
connected home automation systems.

• Connected Healthcare: Here, healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors,

and relatives to alert them of medical emergencies and take preventive
measures.

• Connected Vehicles: Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or

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with other vehicles, or even with sensors and actuators contained within it.
These vehicles self-diagnose themselves and alert owners about system
failures
 .

• Smart Cities: This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring, and

actuation systems.

• Smart Dust: These are microscopic computers. Smaller than a grain of sand each,
they can be used in numerous beneficial ways, where regular computers cannot
operate.

• Smart Factories: These factories can monitor plant processes, assembly lines,
distribution lines, and manage factory floors all on their own.
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• UAVs: UAVs or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged as robust public domain
solutions tasked with applications ranging from agriculture, surveys, surveillance,
deliveries, stock maintenance, asset management, and other tasks.
 Technological interdependencies of IoT with other domains and networking
paradigms

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 M2M: The M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a system of connected
machines and devices, which can talk amongst themselves without human intervention.

CPS: The CPS or the cyber physical system paradigm insinuates a closed control loop—
from sensing, processing, and finally to actuation—using a feedback mechanism.

IoE: The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even reversing the ill-
effects of the permeation of Internet-based technologies on the environment

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 Industry 4.0: Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial revolution
pertaining to digitization in the manufacturing industry. This paradigm strongly puts
forward the concept of smart factories, where machines talk to one another without
much human involvement based on a framework of CPS and IoT.

IoP: IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to decentralize
online social interactions, payments, transactions, and other tasks while maintaining
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 Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

IoT paradigm into four planes:

 services,
 local connectivity,
 global connectivity
 and processing

The service plane is composed of two parts:

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1) things or devices and
2) low-power connectivity
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 IoT Networking Components

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 (i) IoT Node: These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN. Each of these
devices is typically made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio, which
communicates with the network infrastructure (either within the LAN or
outside it). The nodes may be connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly
or by means of a common gateway for that LAN. Connections outside the
LAN are through gateways and proxies.

(ii) IoT Router: An I oT router is a piece of networking equipment that is

primarily tasked with the routing of packets between various entities in the
IoT network; it keeps the traffic flowing correctly within the network. A
router can be repurposed as a gateway by enhancing its functionalities.
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(iii) IoT LAN: The local area network (LAN) enables local connectivity within the
purview of a single gateway. Typically, they consist of short-range
connectivity technologies. IoT LANs may or may not be connected to the
Internet. Generally, they are localized within a building or an organization
 (iV) IoT WAN: The wide area network (WAN) connects various network
segments such as LANs. They are typically organizationally and
geographically wide, with their operational range lying between a few
kilometers to hundreds of kilometers. IoT WANs connect to the Internet
and enable Internet access to the segments they are connecting

(v) IoT Gateway: An IoT gateway is simply a router connecting the IoT LAN
to a WAN or the Internet. Gateways can implement several LANs and
WANs. Their primary task is to forward packets between LANs and WANs,
and the IP layer using only layer 3.
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(vi) IoT Proxy: Proxies actively lie on the application layer and performs
application layer functions between IoT nodes and other entities. Typically,
application layer proxies are a means of providing security to the network
entities under it ; it helps to extend the addressing range of its network
 Addressing Strategies in IoT

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 (i) Global Unicast (GUA): These addresses are assigned to single IoT entities/ interfaces;
they enable the entities to transmit traffic to and from the Internet. In regular IoT
deployments, these addresses are assigned to gateways, proxies, or WANs.
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(ii) Multicast: These addresses enable transmission of messages from a single networked
entity to multiple destination entities simultaneously.

(iii) Link Local (LL): The operational domain of these addresses are valid only within a
network segment such as LAN. These addresses may be repeated in other network
segments/LANs, but are unique within that single network segment.
 (iv) Unique Local (ULA): Similar to LL addresses, ULA cannot be routed over the
Internet. These addresses may be repeated in other network segments/LANs, but
are unique within that single network segment.

(v) Loopback: It is also known as the localhost address. Typically, these addresses
are used by developers and network testers for diagnostics and system checks.

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(vi) Unspecified: Here, all the bits in the IPv6 address are set to zero and the
destination address is not specified. (vii) Solicited-node Multicast: It is a multicast
address based on the IPv6 address of an IoT node or entity
 Address management classes
Class 1: The IoT nodes are not connected to any other interface or the
Internet except with themselves. This class can be considered as an isolated
class, where the communication between IoT nodes is restricted within a
LAN only. The IoT nodes in this class are identified only by their link local (LL)
addresses

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Class 2: The class 1 configuration is mainly utilized for enabling
communication between two or more IoT LANs or WANs. The
IoT nodes within the LANs cannot directly communicate to
nodes in the other LANs using their LL addresses, but through
their LAN gateways (which have a unique address assigned to
them). Generally, ULA is used for addressing; however, in
certain scenarios, GUA may also be used
 Class 3: shows a class 3 IoT network configuration, where the IoT LAN is connected
to an IoT proxy

Class 4: In this class, the IoT proxy acts as a gateway between

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within the LAN. A globally unique prefix is allotted to this
gateway, which it uses with the individual device identifiers to
extend global Internet connectivity to the IoT nodes themselves
 Class 5: This class is functionally similar to class 4. However, the main
difference with class 4 is that this class follows a star topology with the
gateway as the center of the star. All the communication from the IoT nodes
under the gateway has to go through the gateway

Class 6: The configuration of this class is again similar to class 5. However,

the IoT nodes are all assigned unique global addresses (GUA), which
enables a point-to-point communication network with an Internet
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Class 7: Multiple gateways may be present; the configuration is such that the nodes
should be reachable through any of the gateways. Typically, organizational IoT
deployments follow this class of configuration. The concept of multihoming is
important and inherent to this class
 Addressing during node mobility

(i) Global Prefix Changes: abstracts the addressing strategy using global
prefix changes. A node from the left LAN moves to the LAN on the right. The
node undergoing movement is highlighted in the figure. The nodes in the first
LAN have the prefix A, which changes to B under the domain of the new
gateway overseeing the operation of nodes in the new LAN

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 (II)Prefix Changes within WANs: Figure 4.12(b) abstracts the addressing strategy
for prefix changes within WANs. In case the WAN changes its global prefix, the
network entities underneath it must be resilient to change and function
normally. The address allocation is hence delegated to entities such as gateways
and proxies, which make use of ULAs to manage the network within the WA

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 (iii) Remote Anchoring:This is applicable in certain cases which require that the IoT
node’s global addresses are maintained and not affected by its mobility or even the
change in network prefixes. Even if the node’s original network’s (LAN) prefix changes
from A to B, the node’s global address remains immune to this change

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