Module – V

Advanced Engineering Materials: Mechanical properties of

solid, Stress – strain relationship, Tensile strength, Hardness, Fatigue,
Impact strength, Creep – Introduction to Composite materials, Types of
composites, Fibre Reinforced Composites, Particle Reinforced
Composites, Metal Matrix Composites, Ceramic Matrix Composites,
Examples and applications, Surface Characterization techniques, XRD,
XPS.
Stress
In the mechanical properties of solids, stress is defined as the restoring force per
unit area. Hence, Stress in SI units is N/m2 or Pascal (Pa).

If F is the force applied and A is the area of cross section of the body,
Magnitude of the stress = F/A
Mechanical Properties of Solids: Stress-Strain Curve
Mechanical properties of solids, a stress-strain curve is a reliable way
to determine and evaluate the mechanical properties of solids. It can help you
understand the load-bearing capacity or tensile strength of a material
A– Shown as a linear curve. This is the region
where the material obeys Hooke’s law, i.e. The
material regains its original position when the
load is removed
● B– Also known as the elastic limit or yield
point. The stress at this point is called the yield
strength of the material
● B to C– This curve denotes the region of
plastic deformation
● C– Point C shows the ultimate strength or
tensile strength of the material
● D– Any additional strain beyond this point
may lead to permanent fracture of the material
 X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRD)

X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) is a rapid analytical technique

primarily used for phase identification of a crystalline material and can
provide information on unit cell dimensions.
The analyzed material is finely ground, homogenized, and average
bulk composition is determined.

The lattice points in a cubic unit cell can

be described in terms of a three-
dimensional graph
The unit cell is the simplest repeating unit in the crystal.
Opposite faces of a unit cell are parallel.
 Diffraction occurs when a wave meets a set of regularly spaced scattering
objects, and its wavelength of the distance between the scattering objects are of the same
order of magnitude. This makes X-rays suitable for crystallography, as its wavelength and
crystal lattice parameters are both in the scale of angstroms (Å).

Crystal diffraction can be described by Bragg diffraction, where λ is the

wavelength of the incident monochromatic X-ray, d is the distance between parallel
crystal planes, and θ the angle between the beam and the plane.
nλ = 2d sinθ
For constructive interference to occur between two waves, the path length
difference between the waves must be an integral multiple of their wavelength. This path
length difference is represented by 2d sinθ
Bragg diffraction in a crystal. The angles at which diffraction occurs is a
function of the distance between planes and the X-ray wavelength.
The path difference between the reflected ray is equal to MY +NY and MY=NY=dsinθ
path difference = MY +NY
= d sinθ + d sinθ
n= 2d sinθ, Where d = interplanar distance. n=1,2,3,…..specifies the order of reflection.
SOURCE X-ray diffraction tube
High energy e– are produce from heated tungsten filament & this is allowed to
impinge on a small metal target (Cu/Mo) in a sealed diffraction tube.
X-ray generated from metal target is then passed through low absorption beryllium
window to focus into the specimen.
COLLIMATOR :- in order to get a narrow beam of x-ray the x-ray generated by target
material is allowed to pass through collimator that consists of 2 sets of closely packed
metals plates separated by a small gap. The collimator absorbs all the x-ray except the
narrow beam that passes between the gap.
MONOCHROMATOR By using a monochromator, it is possible to obtain an X-ray
diffraction pattern with high P/B ratio because the monochromator can remove interfering
components such as continuous X-rays produced by the X-ray tube
Single crystal X-ray diffractometer with a CCD detector. The incident beam is
generated and delivered through the silver apparatus on the right side of the
sample, and the detector is the large black camera to the left of the sample.
DETECTOR :-
Photographic films: time consuming
Counter methods(better sensitivity wise)
Geiger muller tube counter : it is filled with inert gas like argon the counter
works on the ‘’principle of gas multiplication’’. Ionization in the gas is caused by the entry
of photon or a particulate radiation.
Proportional counter :– It works on the same principle as the Geiger-muller counter but
uses a lower operating voltage.
Scintillation counter:- produces non continuous light when comes in contact with x-rays
e.g. NaI crystal activated by thallium,Anthracene
Semiconductor:– Lithium drifted germanium or lithium drifted silicon
GONIMETER:- is a instrument that allows crystal to be rotated to a precise angular
[Link] as to get good diffraction pattern of the crystal.
APPLICATION :-
1. Structure of crystal
2. polymer characterization
3. particle size determination
4. low angle scattering
5. determination of cis-trans isomerism
6. spot counting method

X-ray powder diffraction is most widely used for the identification of unknown
crystalline materials (e.g. minerals, inorganic compounds). Determination of unknown
solids is critical to studies in geology, environmental science, material science,
engineering and biology.
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a
comprehensive technique for analyzing the surface
layers of semiconductors, metals, plastics, and
fibers. The method is used for determining the
elemental composition of the surface, the chemical
states of the elements, as well as the electronic
structure of the compounds.
How does XPS work?
During an XPS analysis, the sample is irradiated with X-
rays (photons) and some of them are absorbed by the atoms in the
sample. When the electron of an atom absorbs enough energy from a
photon, it is ejected from the atom with a certain kinetic energy. A
detector measures the kinetic energies of those ejected
electrons coming from the surface (from the top 1-10 nm) of the
sample and counts the number of electrons for every kinetic
energy measured.
These numbers represent the intensities of the different kinetic
energy signals of the ejected electrons. Electrons of different energies
follow different paths through the detector which allows the computer to
distinguish the electrons and produce a plot (a spectrum) of their
energies and relative numbers.
Atoms present in compound being tested by XPS are determined
according to the equation:
1. Which is Not Application of x ray diffraction ?
[Link] of cis-trans isomerism in mixture.
B. Study of solid compound crystal structure.
C. Particle size determination.
D. To calculate emf.
2. Which is source production of x ray in x-ray diffraction.
A. Tungsten filament B. Hydrogen- Deterium lamp C. Bolometer D. Mercury arc
3. Which is detector is Not used in x-ray diffraction ?
A. Geiger muller tube B. Proportional Counter C. Semi conductor detector
D. PMT
4. Which Part of x -ray instrument is allow crystal to be rotated to a precise angle position ?
A. Geiger muller tube B. Collimator C. Tungsten filament D. Goniometer
5. What is used of x-ray collimator ?
A. Produce x ray B. Study of shape of crystal C. To absorbed x –ray D. None
of the above
6. Which is dis advantage of photographic films ?
A. Time consuming method B. Old method C. A and B D. None of the above
7. Which sentence is true about x -ray diffraction ?
A. Assay of drug B. To determine oxidation number C. To study of solid
compound crystal structure D. To separate cis – trans mixture

ANSWER KEY
1. D 2. A 3. D 4. D 5. C 6. C 7. C
1. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is also known as
A. EPS
B. ECS
C. ESCA
D. EAS
2. Which energy is responsible to release the electron in XPS?
A. rotational energy
B. gibbs energy
C. binding energy
D. free energy
3. In XPS, the photon ejects electrons from which orbital?
A. 1s electron
B. 3s electron
C. 2s electron
D. 2p electron
4. In Bragg’s equation [nλ = [Link]θ], d is the:
A. interplanar spacing
B. inter spacing
C. planar spacing
D. extraplanar spacing
5. Which is correct?
A. d sinθ = nλ
B. d = nλsinθ
C. d = nλsinθ
D. 2d sinθ = nλ
6. Which method is used in XRD?
A. Lawe method
B. Leue method
C. Liue method
D. Laue method
7. X-ray diffractometers cannot analyse ………
A. Metals
B. Liquids
C. Polymers
D. Solids
8. XRD can be used to analyze the samples ….………………..
1. A. quantitatively
2. B. qualitatively
3. C. quantitatively and qualitatively both
4. D. Either quantitatively or qualitatively
Composites
“A material system consisting a mixture of two or more micro-
constituents, which are mutually insoluble, differing in form or
composition and forming distinct phases”
Advantages
 They possess higher specific strength and lower specific gravity.
 They possess lower electrical conductivity and thermal expansion.
 They possess better creep, fatigue strength, corrosion and oxidation
resistance.
 They maintain very good strength even upto high temperatures.

Constituents of Composites
1. Matrix phase
2. Dispersed phase
Matrix phase
Matrix phase is the continuous body constituent, which enclose
the composite.
Example: Metals, Ceramics, Polymers.
Dispersed Phase
Dispersed phase is the structural constituent, which
determines the internal structure of composite.
Example: Particulates, Flakes, Whiskers.
Types of composites
 Polymer matrix composites.
 Metal matrix composites.
 Certain matrix composites.
Polymer matrix composites (or) Fibre Reinforced Polymer
Composites
The fibre reinforced polymer composites constitute more than
90% (by weight) of the total composites used in various industries.
Preparation
Fibre-reinforced plastics are produced by suitably bonding a
fibre material with a resin matrix and curing them, under heat and
pressure. The main reinforcing agents used in FRP composites are,
glass, graphite, alumina, carbon, boron etc.
The resin matrix commonly used in FRP are polyesters, epoxy,
phenolic, silicone, and polyamide polymer resin.
Types of FRP composites
 Glass- FRP
 Boron –FRP
 Carbon- FRP
 Aramid- FRP
 Alumina –FRP
No Name of the Reason for its use
. resin
1. Polyster resin To impart very good strength and mechanical
properties
2. Epoxy resin To give good mechanical properties
3. Silicone resin To impact excellent thermal and electrical
properties
4. phenolic resin To withstand high temperatures
5. Polyamides and To provide repeatability and repairablity
PET
Uses of FRP
 Home appliances
 Aeroplanes
 Boat hulls
 Buildings
 Space crafts
 Floorings
 Motor cars
 Hose pipes
 Storage tanks
Metal matrix composite
In materials science, a metal matrix composite (MMC) is a composite
material with fibers or particles dispersed in a metallic matrix, such
as copper, aluminum, or steel.
 Ceramic Matrix Composites

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) are a class of materials

that combine ceramic fibers or particles with a ceramic matrix to
form a composite structure. They are designed to take advantage of
the high-temperature properties of ceramics while also providing
improved fracture toughness and impact resistance compared to
monolithic ceramics.
 In a CMC, the ceramic fibers or particles are typically made of
materials such as silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4), or alumina
(Al2O3). These fibers or particles are embedded within a ceramic matrix
material, which can be the same or different from the fiber material. The
matrix material is often a ceramic like silicon carbide or oxide-based
ceramics.
The combination of the fibers or particles with the ceramic matrix
creates a material that exhibits enhanced properties. The fibers or
particles provide high strength and stiffness to the composite, while the
ceramic matrix helps to distribute the load and provides thermal stability.
The fibers or particles also act as reinforcements, preventing crack
propagation and improving fracture toughness.
CMCs offer several advantages over traditional monolithic ceramics and other
composite materials. Some key benefits include:
1. High-temperature capability: CMCs can withstand extremely high temperatures,
making them suitable for applications in aerospace, gas turbine engines, and
other high-temperature environments.
2. Lightweight: CMCs are lightweight compared to traditional metal alloys,
resulting in improved fuel efficiency and reduced emissions in aerospace and
automotive applications.
3. Chemical resistance: CMCs are resistant to corrosion and chemical attack,
making them suitable for applications in harsh environments.
4. Thermal shock resistance: CMCs have good resistance to thermal shock,
meaning they can withstand rapid temperature changes without fracturing.
5. Improved fracture toughness: The incorporation of fibers or particles in the
ceramic matrix improves the fracture toughness of CMCs, making them
less prone to brittle failure.
6. Tailorable properties: The composition, orientation, and volume fraction of
the fibers or particles can be tailored to achieve specific mechanical,
thermal, and electrical properties.

Application
CMCs have found applications in various industries, including aerospace,
defense, energy, and automotive. They are used in components such as turbine
blades, exhaust nozzles, heat shields, rocket nozzles, and brake discs, where
their combination of high-temperature capability, lightweight, and durability is
highly beneficial.
Particle reinforced composite
Particle reinforced composites are a type of composite material
that consists of a matrix material embedded with particles of a different
material. These particles act as reinforcements and provide additional
strength, stiffness, and other desired properties to the composite.
The matrix material in particle reinforced composites is typically
a polymer, metal, or ceramic. The particles can be made of various
materials such as metals, ceramics, polymers, or carbon-based materials
like carbon nanotubes or graphene. The size, shape, and volume fraction
of the particles can be adjusted to achieve specific mechanical, thermal,
and electrical properties.
Types of particle -reinforced composites (a) Large -particle (b) Dispersion -
strengthened.

The particles in particle reinforced composites play a critical role in

enhancing the overall performance of the material. When a load is
applied to the composite, the particles help to distribute the stress
more evenly, reducing localized stress concentrations and preventing
crack propagation. This results in improved strength, stiffness, and
toughness compared to the matrix material alone.
The specific benefits of particle reinforced composites include:
1. Increased strength: The presence of particles in the matrix
material improves the composite's strength by resisting
deformation and preventing crack propagation.

2. Enhanced stiffness: The particles increase the stiffness of the

composite, making it more rigid and resistant to deformation
under load.
3. Improved wear resistance: Certain particles, such as ceramic or
metal particles, can improve the wear resistance of the
composite, making it suitable for applications where friction and
abrasion are significant concerns.
4. Tailorable properties: The type, size, and volume fraction of the
particles can be adjusted to achieve specific mechanical,
thermal, or electrical properties, allowing for customization of the
composite material to meet specific application requirements.
5. Reduced weight: In some cases, particle reinforced composites
can offer improved strength and stiffness while being lighter than
traditional materials like metals, leading to weight savings in
structural applications.
Application
Particle reinforced composites find applications in various
industries, including automotive, aerospace, construction, electronics,
and sports equipment.
They are used in components such as automobile parts,
aircraft structures, electronic enclosures, and sporting goods, where
the combination of lightweight, strength, and tailored properties is
desirable.