NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Nervous System is a complex network of nerves and

cells that carry messages from the brain and spinal cord
to various parts of the body.
OBJECTIVES:

• Functions of the Nervous System

• Anatomy of the Nervous System
 Organizations of the Nervous System
 Structural Classification
 Functional Classification
FUNCTIONS OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Monitoring changes-Much like a sentry, it uses its millions of sensory
receptors to monitor changes occurring both inside and outside the body.
• Interpretation of sensory input-It processes and interprets the sensory
input and decides what should be done at each moment, a process called
integration.
• Effects responses-It then effects a response by activating muscles or glands
(effectors) via motor output.
• Mental activity-The brain is the center of mental activity, including
consciousness, thinking, and memory.
• Homeostasis-This function depends on the ability of the nervous system to
detect, interpret, and respond to changes in internal and external conditions.
ANATOMY OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
- The nervous system does not work alone
to regulate and maintain body homeostasis;
the endocrine system is a second important
regulating system.
ORGANIZATIONS OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
We only have one Nervous System, but, because of its
complexity, it is difficult to consider all of its parts at the
same time; so, to simplify its study, we divide it in terms
of its structures (Structural classification) or in term of
its activities (functional classification).
 STRUCTURAL
CLASSIFICATION
-The structural classification, which includes all of
the nervous system organs, has two subdivisions-
the Central nervous system and the Peripheral
nervous system.
• Central nervous system (CNS). The CNS
consists of the brain and spinal cord which
occupy the dorsal body cavity and act as the
integrating and command centers of the
nervous system.
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS). The
PNS, the part of the nervous system outside
the CNS, consists mainly of the nerves that
extend from the brain and spinal cord.
FUNCTIONAL
CLASSIFICATION
-The functional classification scheme is concerned only with PNS structures.
• Sensory division. The sensory, or afferent division, consists of nerves (composed of nerve fibers) that
convey impulses to the central nervous system from sensory receptors located in various parts of the body.
• Somatic sensory fibers. Sensory fibers delivering impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints are
called somatic sensory fibers.
• Visceral sensory fibers. Those that transmit impulses from the visceral organs are called visceral sensory
fibers.
• Motor division. The motor, or efferent division carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs, the
muscles, and glands; the motor division has two subdivisions: the somatic nervous system and the
automatic nervous system.
• Somatic nervous system. The somatic nervous system allows us to consciously, or voluntarily, control
our skeletal muscles.
• Autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system regulates events that are automatic, are
involuntary, this subdivision, commonly called the involuntary nervous system, has two parts: the
sympathetic and parasympathetic, which typically bring about opposite effects.
 NEURONS

-Neurons, also called nerve cells, are highly specialized to transmit messages
(nerve impulses) from one part of the body to another.
 TYPES OF NEURONS

Neurons are classified based on the direction in which they carry nerve impulses.
• Motor neurons carry nerve impulses from tissues and organs to the spinal cord and brain.
• Sensory neurons carry nerve impulses from tissues and organs to the spinal cord and brain.
• Interneurons carry nerve impulses back and forth between sensory and motor neurons.
PROTECTION OF THE
CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
-Nervous tissue is very soft and delicate, and the
irreplaceable neurons are injured by even the slightest
pressure, so nature has tried to protect the brain and the
spinal cord by enclosing them within the bone (the skull
and vertebral column), membranes(the meninges), and a
watery cushion (cerebrospinal fluid).
BRAIN
The brain is the largest and most complex mass of nervous
tissue in the body, it is commonly discussed in terms of its four
major regions – cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain
stem, and cerebellum.
• Cerebral Hemispheres- The paired cerebral hemispheres,
collectively called the cerebrum, are the most superior part
of the brain, and together are a good deal larger than the
other three brain regions combined.
• Diencephalon- The diencephalon, or interbrain, sits atop
the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres.
• Brain Stem- the brain stem is about the size of a thumb in
diameter and approximately 3 inches long.
• Cerebellum- The large, cauliflower-like cerebellum projects
dorsally from under the occipital lobe of the cerebrum
MENINGES
The three connective tissue membranes covering and protecting the CNS
structures are the meninges.
• Dura mater. The outermost layer, the leathery dura mater, is a double-
layered membrane where it surrounds the brain; one of its layers is
attached to the inner surface of the skull, forming the periosteum
(periosteal layer); the other, called the meningeal layer, forms the
outermost covering of the brain and continues as the dura mater of the
spinal cord.
• Falx cerebri. In several places, the inner dura membrane extends inward
to form a fold that attaches the brain to the cranial cavity, and one of
these folds is the falx cerebri.
• Tentorium cerebelli. The tentorium cerebelli separates the cerebellum
from the cerebrum.
• Arachnoid mater. The middle layer is the weblike arachnoid mater; its
threadlike extensions span the subarachnoid space to attach it to the
innermost membrane.
• Pia mater. The delicate pia mater, the innermost meningeal layer, clings
tightly to the surface of the brain and spinal cord, following every fold
SPINAL CORD
• Length. The spinal cord is approximately 17 inches (42 cm) long.
• Major function. The spinal cord provides a two-way conduction
pathway to and from the brain, and its major reflex center (spinal
reflexes are completed at this level).
• Location. Enclosed within the vertebral column, the spinal cord
extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or
second lumbar vertebra, where it ends just below the ribs.
• Meninges. Like the brain, the spinal cord is cushioned and
protected by the meninges.
• Spinal nerves. In humans, 31 pairs of spinal arise from the cord
and exit from the vertebral column to serve the body area close by.
• Cauda equina. The collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end
of the vertebral canal is called cauda equina because it looks so
much like a horse’s tail.
GRAY MATTER OF THE SPINAL
CORD AND SPINAL ROOTS
• Projections. The two posterior projections are the dorsal,
posterior, horns; the two anterior projections are the
ventral, or anterior, horns.
• Central canal. The gray matter surrounds the central
canal of the cord, which contains CSF.
• Dorsal root ganglion. The cell bodies of sensory
neurons, whose fibers
STRUCTURE OF A NERVE

-A nerve is a bundle of neuron fibers found outside the CNS.

• Endoneurium. Each fiber is surrounded by a delicate connective tissue sheath, an endoneurium.

• Perineurium. Groups of fibers are bound by a coarser connective tissue wrapping, the perineurium, to
form fiber bundles, or fascicles.
• Epineurium. Finally, all the fascicles are bound together by a tough fibrous sheath, the epineurium, to
form the cordlike nerve.
• Mixed nerves. Nerves carrying both sensory and motor fibers are called mixed nerves.
• Sensory nerves. Nerves that carry impulses toward the CNS only are called sensory, or afferent,
nerves.
• Motor nerves. Those that carry only motor fibers are motor, or efferent, nerves.
WHAT IS A NERVE?

- Nerves are like cables that carry electrical

impulses between your brain and rest of your
body. These impulses help you feel sensations
and move your muscles.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the motor subdivision of the PNS
that controls body activities automatically.

• Composition. It is composed of a specialized group of neurons that

regulate cardiac muscle, smooth muscles, and glands.
• Function. At every moment, signals flood from the visceral organs into
the CNS, and the automatic nerves make adjustments as necessary to
best support body activities.
• Divisions. The ANS has two arms: the sympathetic division and the
parasympathetic division.
ANATOMY OF THE PARASYMPATHETIC
DIVISION
The parasympathetic division allows us to “unwind” and conserve energy.

Preganglionic neurons. The preganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic division are

located in brain nuclei of several cranial nerves- III, VII, IX, and X (the Vagus being the most
important of these) and in the S2 through S4 levels of the spinal cord.
Craniosacral division. The parasympathetic division is also called the craniosacral division;
the neurons of the cranial region send their axons out in cranial nerves to serve the head and
neck organs.
Pelvic splanchnic nerves. In the sacral region, the preganglionic axons leave the spinal cord
and form the pelvic splanchnic nerves, also called the pelvic nerves, which travel to the pelvic
cavity.
 ANATOMY OF THE SYMPATHETIC
DIVISION
• The sympathetic division mobilizes the body during extreme situations and is also called the thoracolumbar
division because its preganglionic neurons are in the gray matter of the spinal cord from T1 through L2.

• Ramus communicans. The preganglionic axons leave the cord in the ventral root, enter the spinal nerve,
and then pass through a ramus communicans, or small communicating branch, to enter a sympathetic
chain ganglion.
• Sympathetic chain. The sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies along the vertebral column on each side.
• Splanchnic nerves. After it reaches the ganglion, the axon may synapse with the second neuron in the
sympathetic chain at the same or a different level, or the axon may through the ganglion without synapsing
and form part of the splanchnic nerves.
• Collateral ganglion. The splanchnic nerves travel to the viscera to synapse with the ganglionic neuron,
found in a collateral ganglion anterior to the vertebral column.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The physiology of the nervous system involves a complex journey of

impulses.

Nerve Impulse
• Neurons have two major functional properties: irritability, the ability to
respond to a stimulus and convert it into a nerve impulse, and conductivity,
the ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
THE NERVE IMPULSE PATHWAY
How the nerve impulse actually works is detailed below.

• Resting membrane electrical conditions. The external face of the membrane is slightly positive; its internal face is
slightly negative; the chief extracellular ion is sodium, whereas the chief intracellular ion is potassium; the membrane is
relatively permeable to both ions.
• Stimulus initiates local depolarization. A stimulus changes the permeability of a “patch” of the membrane, and
sodium ions diffuse rapidly into the cell; this changes the polarity of the membrane (the inside becomes more positive;
the outside becomes more negative) at that site.
• Depolarization and generation of an action potential. If the stimulus is strong enough, depolarization causes
membrane polarity to be completely reversed and an action potential is initiated.
• Propagation of the action potential. Depolarization of the first membrane patch causes permeability changes in the
adjacent membrane, and the events described in (b) are repeated; thus, the action potential propagates rapidly along
the entire length of the membrane.
• Repolarization. Potassium ions diffuse out of the cell as the membrane permeability changes again, restoring the
negative charge on the inside of the membrane and the positive charge on the outside surface; repolarization occurs in
the same direction as depolarization.
COMMUNICATION OF NEURONS AT
SYNAPSES
The events occurring at the synapse are arranged below.

• Arrival. The action potential arrives at the axon terminal.

• Fusion. The vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane.
• Release. Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft.
• Binding. The neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on receiving neuron’s end.
• Opening. The ion channel opens.
• Closing. Once the neurotransmitter is broken down and released, the ion channel
close.
AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONING

Body organs served by the autonomic nervous system receive fibers from both divisions.

• Antagonistic effect. When both divisions serve the same organ, they cause
antagonistic effects, mainly because their post ganglionic axons release different
transmitters.
• Cholinergic fibers. The parasympathetic fibers called cholinergic fibers, release
acetylcholine.
• Adrenergic fibers. The sympathetic postganglionic fibers, called adrenergic fibers,
release norepinephrine.
• Preganglionic axons. The preganglionic axons of both divisions release acetylcholine.
SYMPATHETIC DIVISION

The sympathetic division is often referred to as the “fight-or-flight” system.

• Signs of sympathetic nervous system activities. A pounding heart; rapid, deep breathing; cold,
sweaty skin; a prickly scalp, and dilated pupils are sure signs sympathetic nervous system activities.
• Effects. Under such conditions, the sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate, blood
pressure, and blood glucose levels; dilates the bronchioles of the lungs; and brings about many
other effects that help the individual cope with the stressor.
• Duration of the effect. The effects of sympathetic nervous system activation continue for several
minutes until its hormones are destroyed by the liver.
• Function. Its function is to provide the best conditions for responding to some threat, whether the
best response is to run, to see better, or to think more clearly.
 PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION

The parasympathetic division is most active when the body is at rest and not threatened in any
way.

• Function. This division, sometimes called the “resting-and-digesting” system, is chiefly

concerned with promoting normal digestion, with elimination of feces and urine, and with
conserving body energy, particularly by decreasing demands on the cardiovascular system.
• Relaxed state. Blood pressure and heart and respiratory rates rate being regulated at normal
levels, the digestive tract is actively digesting food, and the skin is warm (indicating that there is
no need to divert blood to skeletal muscles or vital organs.
• Optical state. The eye pupils are constricted to protect the retinas from excessive damaging
light, and the lenses of the eye are “set” for close vision.
 THANK YOU!
REPRESENTED BY: JUNDAM ALSHARIEF D.
PALLONG NURHAYNA I.
SARRI AMIERKHAN B.