DC Machines

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• Machines are called
 AC machines (generators or motors) if the electrical system is AC.
 DC machines (generators or motors) if the electrical system is DC.

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Overview of Direct Current Machines
• Direct-current (DC) machines are divided into dc generators and dc motors.

• Most DC machines are similar to AC machines: i.e. they have AC voltages

and current within them.

• DC machines are electromechanical devices that converts

 Electrical energy into mechanical energy (DC motors) or
 Mechanical energy into electrical energy (DC generators).

• They operate on the principle of electromagnetism and are widely used in

various applications due to their simplicity and ease of control. 3
 Direct Current (DC) Machines
• DC machines have DC outputs just because they have a mechanism
converting AC voltages to DC voltages at their terminals.

• This mechanism is called a commutator; therefore, DC machines are also

called commutating machines.

• DC generators are not commonly used, because when direct current is

required, can produced by electronic rectifiers.

• DC motors are widely used, such automobile, aircraft, and portable

electronics, in speed control applications… 4
• A DC machine can be operated either as motor or generator

Generator action:
 An emf (voltage) is induced in a conductor if it moves through a
magnetic field.
 If the prime mover drives armature, the machine works as generator

Motor action:
 A force is induced in a conductor that has a current going through it
and placed in a magnetic field
 If electrical supply is given to armature, the machine works as a motor 5
Basic Principles
Electromagnetic Induction: The fundamental principle behind DC
machines is Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, which states
that a changing magnetic field within a closed loop induces an
electromotive force (EMF).

• Lorentz Force: When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a

magnetic field, it experiences a force (Lorentz force) that causes it to
move. This principle is utilized in both DC motors and generators.
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Principle operation of Generator
• Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a way
that the conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux, voltage is generated
in the conductor.

• The amount of voltage generated depends on:

i. The strength of the magnetic field,
ii. The angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic field,
iii. The speed at which the conductor is moved, and
iv. The length of the conductor within the magnetic field 7
8
 DC Motor Operation
• In a dc motor, the stator poles are supplied by dc excitation current,
which produces a dc magnetic field.

• The rotor is supplied by dc current through the brushes, commutator and

coils.

• The interaction of the magnetic field and rotor current generates a

Lorentz force that drives the motor.

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Construction of DC machine

The basic parts of DC machines are:

A. Stator (stationary part) - field
B. Rotor (Rotating part ) – armature

 The armature and the field system are separated from each other by an air
gap.
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A) Stator or Field system

 Consisting of a frame and field windings or permanent magnets that

create a magnetic field.
 It is mainly design to producing a magnetic flux.

 The stator carries a field winding that is used to produce the

required magnetic field by DC excitation. Often know as the field.

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Stator consists:
 Stator Frame:
 Provides support for the machines
 Provides path for flux

 Stator core

 Stator pole

 Field winding:
 Produce stator magnetic flux i.e. main flux
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 Commutating poles:
 Avoids spark b/n brush & commutator

 Compensating windings: (In large DC machines only)

 Placed in the slots connected in series with armature windings.
 Cancels armature reaction and flux weakening.

 Brushes: Two brushes are pressed to commutator to permit current flow.

 Attached to stator end covers
 Made up of Carbone, graphite
 Collect or supply the current from the commutator
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B) Rotor or Armature

 The electro-mechanical energy conversion is takes place.

 Typically mounted on a shaft, which has windings where the voltage

is induced in generators or where current flows in motors.

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Rotor consists:
 Rotor core (Armature core): is a stack of thin laminations to
reduce core loss and it holds the armature windings (conductors)
 Armature winding: Inserted in the armature core slots (rotor core
slots)
 Rotor shaft
 Bearings
 To support the rotor shaft
 Provides smooth rotation of armature
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 Commutator:

 A mechanical switch that reverses the current direction in the

rotor windings, ensuring that the torque produced is in the same
direction.
 Mounted on the shaft, insulated each other.
 Convert AC to DC (Rectification)

 Brushes: Carbon or graphite contacts that maintain electrical contact

with the rotating commutator.
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• Stator and rotor ( ferromagnetic materials)

• Field winding  the one that produces the primary flux

• Armature winding  in which voltage is induced

• Iron core  maximize flux density

• Laminations  reduce eddy current

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 DC Motor
Principle:

• When the current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it

experiences force.

I +

Mechanical Electrical V
Load Machine

Power flow
-

Electrical Motor 18
Equivalent Circuit of DC Machine:
The performance of any electrical machine is analyzed by representing the machine
with a mathematical model.
The representation of mathematical model in terms of electrical elements is called
equivalent circuit.
• The equivalent circuit of DC machines has two components:
a) The field circuit:
 It is represented by a winding that generates the magnetic field and a resistance
connected in series. The field winding has resistance .
b) Armature circuit:
 It can be represented by a voltage source and a resistance connected in series (the
armature resistance ).
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a) Field Circuit: DC current, If is flowing in the field coil

Let RF be the resistance and LF be the inductance of field winding

The voltage equation of the field winding If

Field winding
Vf
diF
VF RF iF  LF  In steady state, VF RF iF
dt
Representation of Field winding

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b) Armature Circuit:
The field winding generates flux, and the current is supplied to armature,
Hence, the motor rotates
When the motor runs, there is generator action and corresponding EMF is
called back EMF, Eb

When the mechanical load is applied, the armature draws more current
from the source.
Ia + If
The armature has small amount of resistance, Ra
Ra
Va M Vf
Eb
The voltage equation in the armature circuit:
= -
Va: Supply voltage Eb: Back EMF
Separately excited DC motor
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When mechanical load is applied on the rotor, the armature draws a current
of Ia

The voltage equation in the armature circuit:

=

Multiplying both sides, with Ia. = Ra

Power input to armature =VaIa

Copper loss in armature =Ra

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The remaining power, EbIa is converted to mechanical power and develops
mechanical torque, Td
Pm Td 
Eb I a Td 
 Eb k 
k  I a Td 
Td k I a

The torque developed in the armature, is proportional to flux of the field

winding and current in the armature conductors

In case of motor, the input current drawn depends on the mechanical load
applied on the shaft
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Types of DC Machines:
Based on excitation to the field winding DC machines can classified as:
i) Separately excited: Field and armature windings are excited from
separate sources i.e. field winding are energized from an independent
external sources of dc current.
The voltage of the external dc source has no relation with the armature
voltage

If RF Ia
Ra
VF Va
Eb

Separately excited Dc machines

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ii) Self excited:
• Field and armature windings are energized by the same source
• When the field winding is excited by its own armature, the machine is
said to be a self excited dc machine.

 According the connection of the field winding with the armature

winding, a self-excited dc machine can be sub-divided as:
a) Shunt wound
b) Series wound
c) Compound wound
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a) Shunt wound: The field winding is connected parallel to the armature and
armature voltage is applied to the field winding.
Under loaded conditions,
Source current, Is = Field current, If + Armature current, Ia

As the armature voltage is applied to the field winding, the field winding
consists of large number of turns with high resistance.
RF If Is
and
Ia

Ra Va
Eb

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b) Series wound: The field winding is connected in series with armature
conductors and armature current flows in the field winding.

Field current, If = Armature current, Ia Ia

As the armature current flows in the winding, the Ra Va
winding consists of less number of turns with more Eb
thickness (less resistance).

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c) Compound wound: It is a combination of series and shunt
Two types
i. Short shunt: Shunt-field is connected in parallel with armature only
ii. Long shunt: Shunt-field is connected in parallel with both armature and
series field

Series field
Series field
Is If Is
If
Ia Ia
Shunt field

Ra
Shunt field

Ra Refer @
Eb Eb Cumulative compound and
Differential compound

Short shunt Long shunt 28

Losses and Efficiency:
1. Iron loss in the armature core
As the field flux passing through the armature magnetic core, some power
is lost in the armature core, known as iron loss.
 The core losses are the hysteresis and eddy current losses.

2. Copper loss in the armature & field windings

The armature has small amount resistance, it causes small amount of
voltage drop, IaRa and power loss of

 Occurs because of the resistance windings. The ohomic loss is produced

by the current flowing in the windings.
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 The windings that are present in addition to the armature windings are the
field windings.

• The field winding has large resistance, Rf. The power loss in the field winding, Rf

3. Brush losses
 Brush losses are the losses taking place between the commutator and the carbon
brushes.
4. Mechanical losses
 The losses that take place because of the mechanical effects of the machines are
known as mechanical losses.

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 Mechanical losses are divided as bearing friction loss and windage loss. The
losses occurring in the moving parts of the machine and the air is known as
Windage losses.

• The power lost due to friction & wind, called as friction & windage loss.

5. Stray load losses

 These losses are the miscellaneous type of losses.

 These losses are very difficult to determine.

 For most machines, stray losses are taken by convention to be one percent of the
full load output power. 31
Ex. A 500 V DC shunt motor takes no load current of 5A. The resistance of
armature circuit is 0.25 and field circuit is 500 . Calculate the efficiency of
motor drawing a current of 100A from supply.
Solution:
At No-load:
The no-load power input = V*I=500*5 =2500 W
This includes i) Iron loss ii) Friction and windage loss iii) Shunt field Cu. Loss and
iV) Armature Cu. Loss.
In a shunt machine, the sum of iron loss, Friction and windage loss and Shunt field
Cu. Loss is known as constant loss. 500Ω If 5A
Ia
Va 500
The shunt field current, I sh   1A 0.25Ω 500 V
Rsh 500 Eb

At no-load, armature current, I a I s  I sh 4A

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The armature Cu. Loss,
The constant loss, No load at no load

At load, when the motor draws 100 A:

500Ω If 100 A
Ia
Motor power input, = 500*100=50000 W 0.25Ω 500 V
Eb
The armature current, I a I s  I sh 100  1 99A

The armature Cu. Loss,

The power output= power input- -
The efficiency=

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 Steady-state Speed-Torque Characteristics:
The basic equations of DC motor are Ia + If

Also, Va M Vf

Where  = Flux per pole, Wb ω= Armature speed, rad/sec

Ia = Armature current, A Td = Torque developed by motor, N-m
Va = Armature voltage, V K = Constant
Ra = Armature resistance, 

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 Va I a Ra T
From (1) and (2)    Ia 
K K K

Va Td Ra
   ...(4)
K  ( K ) 2

If the armature voltage, Va and flux,  kept constant, ω = C – mT

The equation is a straight line with negative slope

As Ra is less, the slope is less

If load torque, , there is no load on the motor, the motor is said to be on no-
load
The corresponding speed is called no load speed,

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When the load torque is increased, TL > Td, the load torque dominates
developed torque, the speed falls

When the speed falls, the back emf, falls

The armature current, Ia = increases

The torque, developed increases

The speed decreases till Td = TL

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The armature resistance, Ra of dc motor is small, the speed change from no-load to
full load in DC shunt motor is less

For all practical purposes, separately excited DC motor is a constant speed motor


T
Basic Torque-Speed Characteristics of DC motor

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Speed Control Below Rated Speed: 
V1>V2>V3>V4
At no-load speed, the torque, T is zero (V1,ф)
(V2,ф)
𝑉𝑎
The no load speed, 𝜔 𝑜= (V3,ф)
𝐾𝜙 (V4,ф)

0
T- characteristics with variable
armature voltage

The no load speed, can be decreased by reducing or increasing

Usually, machine flux is operated at knee point, if flux increased it may reach
saturation and avoided.
Hence, below rated speed, speed is controlled by keeping flux constant and varying

armature voltage 38
Below rated speed, the flux,  is constant and if the load torque is constant,
armature current is constant.

Below rated speed, it is called as constant torque region.

The armature input power, Pa = VaIa

As voltage is varied linearly, the armature power input also

T, ф, Ia
varies linearly. T
Ia
ф
Va (ideal)


rated 39
Speed Control Above Rated Speed:

𝑉𝑎
The no load speed, 𝜔 𝑜=
𝐾𝜙
The speed can be raised from no load speed by increasing
above the rated voltage or decreasing the flux.

The armature winding insulation is based on the rated armature voltage

If the armature voltage is increased above rated, insulation will be damaged

Hence, above rated speed, armature voltage is kept constant and flux is decreased

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The armature input power, Pa = VaIa
Hence, above rated speed, the power input to the machine is constant (Constant
power region)
However, As the flux is decreased to control the speed, the torque developed also
decreases (T = kIa).

If the load torque is kept constant, the armature will draw Ia, P, V

more rated current, which may damage the armature

windings.
T, ф
Above rated speed, when flux is decreased, load torque is
also decreased to keep current at it’s rated value
rated 41
EX. A 500 V DC shunt motor takes a current of 100 A at full load and runs at a
speed of 950 RPM. The machine has armature and field resistances of 0.22 and 250
 respectively.
a) Find the torque developed at full load.
b) If the speed of the motor is to be reduced to 800 rpm, keeping load torque
constant, how armature voltage is to be applied?

Solution:
500Ω 1A 100 A
Va 500
a) The shunt field current, I sh   1 A 99 A
Rsh 500
0.22Ω 500 V
The armature current, I a I s  I sh 99 A
The back EMF, Eb Va - I a Ra 478.22 V 478.22V
2 N
Pm Eb I a Td *  Td 475.89 N-m
60
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b) In DC shunt motor, T = KIa

As flux,  is constant, Torque, T is proportional to armature current, Ia

Below rated speed, the speed is controlled by reducing the armature voltage

As the load is constant, the armature current, Ia remains same as previous case
Eb 2  22
The back EMF, kN 2
Eb1 N1
Eb1 kN1 ;   Eb 2 402.71 V
Eb 2 N 2
The armature voltage applied, Va 2 Eb 2  I a 3 Ra 424.5 V
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DC Series Motor Characteristics:
Ia
T  I a
Ra Va
  Ia Eb
T  I a2
At light loads, Ia is small and  is small,
T
Hence, Torque Vs current is a parabola

In case of heavy loading, Ia will be large, flux may be saturated,

in such a case
Ia
Develops huge starting torque used in electric trains, hoists where
high starting required 44
Speed Vs Current: Eb k  N
2N

60
Eb k1N
Eb
N Ia

When machine is loaded, armature current, Ia increases, flux,  increases

Neglecting change in Eb, N

When load is light, Ia is less, speed is more

When load is more, Ia is more, speed is less

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Speed Vs Torque:
N
2
TI a

Ia  T
1 1 1
N  
 Ia T Ta

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EX. A 220 V DC series motor draws a current of 40 A when running at 950 rpm.
The armature has a resistance of 0.1 and field winding resistance is 0.15.
i) Calculate the torque developed by the machine ii) If the load torque is doubled,
find, the armature current.

Sol:
a)The back emf, Eb Va - I a ( Ra  Rse ) 210V
2 N
The mechanical power developed, Pm T d *
60
Eb I a
The developed torque, T d  84.45N-m
2 N
60

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b)In series motor, T  I a    Ia
T  I a2
T1 KI12
T2 KI 22

T2
I2  * I1 56.56A
T1

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Advantages
 Simplicity: Simple design and easy to construct.
 Speed Control: Easy speed control through field current adjustment or armature voltage
control.
 Starting Torque: High starting torque, making them suitable for heavy load applications.

Disadvantages
 Maintenance: Requires regular maintenance due to wear on brushes and commutators.
 Size and Weight: Generally larger and heavier compared to AC machines.
 Cost: May be more expensive due to additional components like brushes and
commutators.

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