PRINCIPLES

OF
COMPRESSION
This module is designed to help the
participant understand:-
•The compression cycle,
•Effects of clearance on horsepower
•And volumetric efficiency and various
methods of adding clearance.
This series of slides will demonstrate what happens inside the cylinder
during the compression cycle. We will use a “theoretical Pressure Volume
card”1, or PV card, which schematically represents the changing pressure in
the cylinder as the piston reciprocates. The PV card is a graph that is
indicated on an oscilloscope type screen while Beta testing a machine. The Y
axis represents pressure and the X axis represents volume. The P1 line is
equal to suction pressure and the P2 line is equal to discharge pressure.

To simplify this discussion, we will look at what happens on the outer-end of

the cylinder only.
We will start with the piston at bottom dead center, both valves closed and
gas contained in the cylinder at suction pressure.
Note: Due to all of the information provided by the P.V. card many
compressor operators Beta test their machines regularly to check equipment
performance and condition.
1 A theoretical pressure volume card reflects only the work required to
compress and move the gas and does not reflect the work required to operate
the valves as would an “actual pressure volume card”.
P2

PRESSURE .
P1

VOLUME
P2

PRESSURE
P1

VOLUME

The piston starts to

move away from
bottom dead center
starting the
compression portion of
the cycle. The reduction
of the volume in the
cylinder squeezes the
gas causing a pressure
increase as well as a
temperature increase.
 P2

PRESSURE
P1

VOLUME

As the piston continues to

move towards top dead
center, the gas is
compressed to slightly
above discharge pressure.
This differential pressure
causes the discharge valve
to open thus starting the
delivery portion of the
cycle.
P2

PRESSURE
P1

VOLUME

The piston continues to

move towards top dead
center after the discharge
valve is open, further
reducing the volume of the
cylinder, therefore
maintaining the differential
pressure required to push
the compressed gas in the
cylinder, through the valve
and into the discharge gas
passage.
 P2

PRESSURE
P1

VOLUME
When the piston stops at the
end of its stroke, the pressure
across the valve is equalized
and the discharge valve closes.
This ends the delivery portion
of the cycle.
Since the piston does not touch
the end of the cylinder and
cannot sweep the volume
under the valves etc., there will
always be gas left in the
cylinder, after the piston stops,
in all of the un-swept volumes.
These un-swept volumes are
referred to as clearance.
P2

PRESSURE
P1

VOLUME

The expansion portion of

the cycle is started as the
piston begins to move
back towards bottom
dead center.
The gas trapped in the
cylinder clearance
volumes is expanded,
reducing pressure as the
piston moves and volume
increases.
 P2

PRESSURE
P1

VOLUME

When the pressure in the

cylinder is slightly lower
than inlet pressure, the
differential pressure causes
the inlet valve to open.
This starts the inlet portion
of the cycle.
The differential pressures
will be shown in a later slide
that depicts the actual
pressure volume card.
P2

PRESSURE
P1

VOLUME
The piston continues to
move toward bottom
dead center after the
inlet valve is open. The
increase in volume of
the cylinder causes a
lower pressure inside of
the cylinder bore than
that in the cylinder gas
passage therefore
allowing the gas in the
passage to flow through
the valve and into the
cylinder.
 P2

PRESSURE
P1

VOLUME
Once the piston stops
again at bottom dead
center, the pressure
equalizes and the inlet
valve closes, ending the
inlet portion of the cycle.
This cycle is then repeated
continuously.
The area indicated inside
of the PV card is relative
to horsepower. The larger
the area, the more
horsepower is required to
do the indicated work. Presentation
 P2 2

PRESSURE
3 1

P1 4
VOLUME

1. COMPRESSION
2. DELIVERY
3. EXPANSION
4. INLET
Here is a recap of the
entire compression cycle
showing compression,
delivery, expansion, and
inlet.
 What is shown here, is an
actual P.V. card indicating
the pressure differentials
required to operate the
P2
valves.
Notice how the curve falls
below P1 showing a lower
pressure in the cylinder
than P1 so the inlet valve
can open and the gas can
enter the cylinder.
P1
The curve also rises above
P2 showing a higher
pressure in the cylinder
STROKE than P2 so the discharge
valve can open and the gas
can exit the cylinder.
WITH VALVE LOSSES ADDED

Presentation
 By showing these
differentials required to
operate the valves, you
P2 can see that the area
inside the curve is
greater indicating that it
takes added horsepower
to operate the valves.

That added horsepower,

referred to as valve loss,
P1 is to create the
differential necessary to
overcome the springing
and open the valve as well
STROKE as to force the gas
through all of the small
passages in the valve.
WITH VALVE LOSSES ADDED

Presentation
 As the piston approaches
P2 either end of the stroke, it
slows down thus flowing
less gas and maintaining
less differential as indicated
by the taper on the valve
loss curve.
This also indicates less
P1 horsepower requirement to
force the gas through the
valve at a lower velocity.

STROKE

WITH VALVE LOSSES ADDED

Presentation
 Piston speed is greatest at
mid-stroke therefore the
P2 velocity of the gas going
through the valve is the
fastest at mid-stroke
indicated by the peak of
the valve loss curves.

This shows that it requires

P1 more differential /
horsepower to force the
gas through the valve at
maximum velocity.
STROKE

WITH VALVE LOSSES ADDED

Presentation
By viewing the P.V. card, we can get an indication of cylinder efficiency and
horsepower.

Discharge V.E.
Let’s first discuss the
efficiency:
P2 45%
The volumetric efficiency of a
cylinder is a useful function
for determining the ability of
a compressor cylinder to fill
up with gas (inlet volumetric
efficiency) or empty of gas
(discharge volumetric
P1 efficiency).
The capacity of a compressor
85% cylinder is calculated by using
the volumetric efficiency.
Suction V.E.

total displacement / stroke

 The portion of the stroke
during which the valves are
open, compared to the total
Discharge V.E. length of the stroke, is known
as the volumetric efficiency,
P2 45% and is usually expressed as a
percentage of the stroke of
the end of the cylinder being
considered.
That is (in this example), the
gas at discharge pressure, is
being discharged during 45%
P1 of the discharge stroke.
Likewise, gas pressure within
85% the compression chamber is
sufficiently low to permit inlet
Suction V.E. gas into the compression
chamber for 85% of the inlet
total displacement / stroke stroke.
 BASE CLEARANCE
(MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY)

As mentioned earlier, when

the piston reaches the end of
TOTAL VOLUME
P2 its stroke on the delivery
3 2 cycle, a portion of the gas (at
discharge pressure) remains
within volumes of the
cylinder which are unswept
by the piston. These
volumes are referred to as
clearance. When the
P1 cylinder is configured with
4 1 minimal clearance, the
cylinder is considered to be
SWEPT VOLUME
at base clearance. The base
clearance is expressed as a
percentage of the total
displacement volume of the
CLEARANCE cylinder.
approx. 20%
 BASE CLEARANCE
(MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY)

Also, as mentioned previously,

the gas in these volumes must
TOTAL VOLUME
P2 be expanded in order to lower
3 2 the pressure enough to let new
gas into the cylinder.
In this P.V. card, the area
inside of the rectangle on the
P.V. card represents the total
cylinder volume including the
fixed clearance volumes. The
P1 area within the curve (1-2-3-4)
4 1 represents the swept or
displacement volume, which is
SWEPT VOLUME the volume displaced by the
piston movement.
If we subtract the
displacement volume from the
CLEARANCE total cylinder volume, we
approx. 20% would have the base clearance
volume.
 BASE CLEARANCE
(MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY)

TOTAL VOLUME
P2 To find out the percentage of
3 2 base clearance on that end of
the cylinder, we would simply
divide the base clearance
volume by the displacement
volume. (The same would
have to be done for the other
end of the cylinder.)
P1 Ex:
4 1 Total cylinder volume = 210 cu. in.
Displacement volume = 175 cu. in.
SWEPT VOLUME Fixed clearance volume = 35 cu. in.
35 cu. in. = 0.20 or 20% base clearance.
175 cu. in.

CLEARANCE
approx. 20%
 ADDED CLEARANCE
(REDUCED EFFICIENCY)
Clearance in a cylinder has
TOTAL VOLUME predominant control over
P2 V.E.
3 2
Sometimes it is necessary to
add clearance to a cylinder to
either control capacity or to
stay within a certain
horsepower requirement so as
not to overload the driver.
P1 A cylinder will be at its
maximum efficiency (highest
4 1 V.E.) when configured at base
SWEPT VOLUME clearance and will start to lose
efficiency as clearance is
added and V.E. decreases.
In this slide, the clearance
has been increased 5%.
CLEARANCE
In a sense, the cylinder
approx. 25% volume has been increased.
 ADDED CLEARANCE
(REDUCED EFFICIENCY)
Now that there is a greater
TOTAL VOLUME amount of gas to be
P2 compressed, it will take a
3 2
greater portion of the stroke
to reach the pressure required
to open the discharge valve
(indicated by the solid line 1-2)

Note: the swept volume stayed

P1 the same. Since the clearance
volume is larger, more
4 1 undisplaced gas remains
within the cylinder at
SWEPT VOLUME
discharge pressure.
It will now take a greater
portion of the stroke for the
gas to expand (reduce in
CLEARANCE pressure) sufficiently to let the
approx. 25% suction valve open. (indicated
by the solid line 3-4)
 ADDED CLEARANCE
(REDUCED EFFICIENCY)
As you can see, the discharge
TOTAL VOLUME and suction V.E.s have both
P2 been reduced therefore
3 2
indicating the reduction in
capacity.
The area inside the pressure
curve (1-2-3-4) is proportional
to horsepower as well as to
capacity. The larger the area,
P1 the higher the capacity and
horsepower demand and
4 1 obviously, the smaller the area
the lower the capacity and
SWEPT VOLUME
horsepower demand.

Notice the difference in area of the dotted line curve and the solid
line curve.
CLEARANCE It is easy to see that with a lower base clearance and a higher V.E.,
approx. 25% more gas is compressed and delivered and more horsepower is
required to do the work. (indicated by the dotted line curve)
 There are a number of ways
to add clearance to a
cylinder.

One is with a clearance plug.

This is a plug that fills a bore
inside of the outer head.

Clearance Bottle
Connection
(CBC)

DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER

Base Clearance
 The plug can be turned to add
a fixed amount of volume or
clearance to the cylinder.

Clearance Bottle
Connection
(CBC)

DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER

CBC PLUG REVERSED
 Cutting the plug would also
be a way of adding a lesser
amount of clearance to the
cylinder but its drawback is
that it is a permanent
adjustment.
The only way of returning to
base clearance is to install a
new plug.

Clearance Bottle
Connection
(CBC)

DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER

CBC PLUG CUT
 If it is necessary to add more
clearance than the amount
that is added by turning the
plug, a clearance bottle can be
attached to the same flange
that the plug was mounted on.

Clearance Bottle
Connection
(CBC)

DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER

CLEARANCE BOTTLE
The Variable Volume
Clearance Pocket, or,
VVCP is a popular
component for changing
clearance on
applications that have a
variety of operating
conditions, each
requiring different
amounts of clearance.

Variable Volume
Clearance Pocket
The VVCP consists of an outer head (Closed)
with a bore in it, a piston and rod
assembly that moves within and a
jamnut to hold the piston in place. DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
In this graphic, the VVCP is at base BASE CLEARANCE
clearance.
 By loosening the jamnut
and turning the rod
counterclockwise, the
VVCP can easily be
adjusted to add a little
clearance... ...or a lot of
clearance.

Variable Volume
Clearance Pocket
(Open)

DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER

MAXIMUM CLEARANCE
 By turning the piston and rod
clockwise, the clearance can be
returned to base.

Variable Volume
Clearance Pocket
(Open)

DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER

MAXIMUM CLEARANCE
 Warning!

The VVCP should never be adjusted while the unit is in operation.

The machine should be shut down and be depressurized before
attempting an adjustment.
If the VVCP is adjusted while the unit is in operation, cyclic loading
on the piston could cause the threads to chatter leading to
breakage and the piston and rod assembly could become a
projectile causing bodily harm or death.
 Another way of adding
clearance is with an air
operated fixed volume
clearance pocket.
This is a cavity in the outer
head that is closed off to the
cylinder bore until the
actuator lifts the plunger
away from the seat.

Air Operated
Fixed Volume
Clearance
Pocket
DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
BASE CLEARANCE
 When the plunger is away
from the seat, the fixed
volume within the head is
exposed to the cylinder bore
thus adding clearance.

Air Operated
Fixed Volume
Clearance
Pocket
DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
MAXIMUM CLEARANCE
 Some compressor models
have outer heads with
internal o-ring seals which
allow the head to be
positionable.
The plug inside of the head
has the same arrangement.

HEAD AND PLUG SPACING

 The head and plug can
both be positioned as need
be to adjust for the
desired clearance.
The head and plug are
positioned by spacers cut
to the prescribed
thickness'.

HEAD AND PLUG SPACING

 Although clearance is most
commonly added to the outer
end, some applications require
clearance added to the frame
end as well.
The frame end has limited
options of adding clearance but
this can be accomplished by
using valve spacers under the
suction or discharge valves or
both.
This leaves more unswept
volume under the valves. The
spacers can be used on both
ends of the cylinder.
The other option for adding
frame end clearance is to
machine the back of the piston
as indicated above. In this case,
caution must be taken when
setting piston end clearance.
CYLINDER UTILIZING VALVE SPACERS The measurement should be
taken on the part of the piston
that has not been machined.
 25%
20%
P2-B This slide shows the change in
volumetric efficiencies due to
different ratios.

P2-A P2-A represents a lower

discharge pressure than P2-B.

For this example, P1 will stay

the same. The discharge V.E.
for P2-A looks to be about 25%
while the discharge V.E. for P2-
B is about 20%. It takes more
P1 of the piston stroke for the gas
to reach P2-B than P2-A.
70%
80%

STROKE

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT RATIOS

 25% In addition, the trapped gas at
20% the end of the stroke is now at a
P2-B higher pressure and it will take
more of the piston stroke
inward for the gas to reduce
down to slightly below P1 so the
P2-A inlet V.E. is reduced to about
70% from 80%. (percentages
are not accurate - only used as
examples) A reduction in V.E.
is a reduction in flow.
You can also see that the area
inside the curve at the low ratio
P1 is less than that of the higher
ratio indicating that it takes
70% more horsepower to compress
80% and move one million cubic feet
of gas at a higher ratio than a
STROKE lower ratio.

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT RATIOS

 Important note
25%
20%
Less than 15% volumetric
P2-B efficiency of a cylinder, whether
due to clearance or ratio, may
lead to premature valve failure
due to fluttering.
P2-A Valves operate on flow and
differential pressure.
When there is not enough flow
through a valve, the plate is
neither open or closed and
flutters within the valve causing
excessive contacting of the plate
to seat which results in
P1 accelerated wear of the plate.
70%
Note: Due to all of the
80%
information provided by the
STROKE P.V. card many compressor
operators Beta test their
machines regularly to check
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT RATIOS equipment performance and
condition.