The OSI Model and

the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

OBJECTIVES
• To discuss the idea of multiple layering in data
communication and networking and the
interrelationship between layers.
• To discuss the OSI model and its layer architecture
and to show the interface between the layers.
• To briefly discuss the functions of each layer in the
OSI model.
• To introduce the TCP/IP protocol suite and compare
its layers with the ones in the OSI model.
• To show the functionality of each layer in the
TCP/IP protocol with some examples.
• To discuss the addressing mechanism used in some
layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite for the delivery of a
message from the source to the destination.
Introduction
• The layered model that dominated data
communication and networking literature before
1990 was the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. Everyone believed that the OSI
model would become the ultimate standard for
data communications—but this did not happen.
The TCP/IP protocol suite became the
dominant commercial architecture because it
was used and tested extensively in the Internet;
the OSI model was never fully implemented.
PROTOCOL LAYERS
• A protocol is required when two entities
need to communicate.
• When communication is not simple, we
may divide the complex task of
communication into several layers.

Example (face to face)

Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of
.common ideas
PROTOCOL LAYERS
• Example ( Different Cities)
• Now assume that Ann has to move to another
town because of her job.
Protocol Hierarchies
• To reduce their design
complexity, most networks
are organized as a stack of
layers or levels, each one
built upon the one below
it.
• The purpose of each layer
is to offer certain services
to the higher layers while
shielding those layers from
the details of how the
offered services are
The interface defines which actually implemented.
primitive operations and • In reality, no data are
services the lower layer directly transferred from
makes available to the
upper one.
layer n on one machine to
THE OSI MODEL
• This model is based on a proposal developed by
the International Standards Organization (ISO) as
a first step toward international standardization
of the protocols used in the various layers.
• The model is called the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model because
it deals with connecting open systems. It was
first introduced in the late 1970s.
• An open system is a set of protocols that allows
any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture.
THE OSI MODEL
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to
facilitate communication between different
systems without requiring changes to the logic
of the underlying hardware and software.
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for
understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and
interoperable.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the
design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer
systems.
THE OSI MODEL
• It consists of seven separate but related layers,
each of which defines a part of the process of
moving information across a network .

The user
support layers

links the two

subgroups

The network
support layers
Layered Architecture
• As the message travels
from A to B, it may pass
through many
intermediate nodes.
These intermediate
nodes usually involve
only the first three
layers of the OSI model.
• Each layer defines a
family of functions
distinct from those of
the other layers.
• Within a single machine,
each layer calls upon the
services of the layer just
Between machines, layer x on one below it. Layer 3, for
machine logically communicates example, uses the
with layer x on another machine. services provided by
Layered Architecture
• Interfaces between Layers: Each
interface defines what information and
services a layer must provide for the layer
above it.

• The upper OSI layers are almost always

implemented in software; lower layers are a
combination of hardware and software,
except for the physical layer, which is mostly
hardware.
 Encapsulation • The process starts
at layer 7 (the
application layer),
then moves from
Data Unit layer to layer in
PPDU descending,
sequential order. At
SPDU each layer, a
Segmen header can be
Packett added to the data
Frame
unit. At layer 2, a
trailer may also be
Bits
added. When the
formatted data unit
passes through the
physical layer
A packet at level 7 is encapsulated in the
packet at level 6. The whole packet at
(layer 1), it is
level 6 is encapsulated in a packet at level changed into an
5, and so on. electromagnetic
 Physical Layer (1)
• The physical layer coordinates the
functions required to carry a bit stream
over a physical medium.
• It deals with the mechanical and electrical
specifications of the interface and
transmission media.
• It also defines the procedures and
functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for
transmission to occur.
Physical Layer (1)
Physical characteristics of interfaces and media.
o The physical layer defines the characteristics of the
interface between the devices and the transmission
media.
o It also defines the type of transmission media.
 Representation of bits.
o To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals—
electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of
encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to signals).
 Data rate.
o The transmission rate—the number of bits sent each second.
 Synchronization of bits.
o the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
Line configuration (point-to-point, multipoint).
 Physical topology (mesh, bus, star, ring)
Transmission mode (simplex mode, half-duplex, full-
duplex)
Data Link Layer (2)
• The data link layer transforms the physical
layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link. It makes the physical layer appear error-
free to the upper layer (network layer).
 Framing.
• The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from
the network layer into manageable data units called frames.

Physical addressing.
▫ If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to
define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame
is intended for a system outside the sender’s network,
the receiver address is the address of the connecting
device that connects the network to the next one.
Data Link Layer (2)
Flow control.
o If the rate at which the data is absorbed by the
receiver is less than the rate produced at the
sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver.
Error control.
o The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer
by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit
damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to
recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally
achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
Access control.
o When two or more devices are connected to the same
link, data link layer protocols are necessary to
determine which device has control over the link at any
given time.
Network Layer (3)
• The network layer is responsible for the source-
to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly
across multiple networks (links).
• Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery
of the packet between two systems on the same
network (link), the network layer ensures that
each packet gets from its point of origin to its
final destination.
• If two systems are connected to the same link,
there is usually no need for a network layer.
However, if the two systems are attached to
different networks (links) with connecting
devices between the networks (links), there is
often a need for the network layer to
accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
Network Layer (3)
 Logical addressing.
o The physical addressing implemented by the data
link layer handles the addressing problem locally.
If a packet passes the network boundary, we need
another addressing system to help distinguish the
source and destination systems. The network layer adds
a header to the packet coming from the upper layer
that, among other things, includes the logical addresses
of the sender and receiver.
 Routing.
o When independent networks or links are connected
together to create internetworks (network of networks)
or a large network, the connecting devices (called
routers or switches) route or switch the packets to
their final destination. One of the functions of the
network layer is to provide this mechanism.
Transport Layer(4)
• The transport layer is responsible for
process-to-process delivery of the entire
message. A process is an application
program running on the host.
• The transport layer, ensures that the
whole message arrives intact and in
order.
 Service-point addressing.
o The transport layer header must add a type of
address called a service-point address (or port
address). The network layer gets each packet to
the correct computer; the transport layer gets
the entire message to the correct process on that
computer.
Transport

Layer(4)
Segmentation and reassembly.
o A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number. These numbers
enable the transport layer to reassemble the message
correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify
and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
 Connection control.
o The transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection-oriented.
 Flow control.
o Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for
flow control. However, flow control at this layer is performed
end to end rather than across a single link.
 Error control.
o Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for
error control. However, error control at this layer is
performed process-to-process rather than across a single
link. Error correction is usually achieved through
Session Layer(5)
• The session layer is the network dialog controller.
It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating systems.
 Dialog control.
• The session layer allows two systems to enter into a
dialog. It allows the communication between two
processes to take place in either half-duplex or full-
duplex mode.
 Synchronization.
• The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints
(synchronization points) into a stream of data. For
example, if a system is sending a file of 2,000 pages, it is
advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages
to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and
acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash
happens during the transmission of page 523, the only
Presentation Layer (6)
• The presentation layer is concerned with the
syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.
 Translation.
o The presentation layer is responsible for
interoperability between these different
encoding methods.
o The presentation layer at the sender changes the
information from its sender-dependent format
into a common format. The presentation layer at
the receiving machine changes the common
format into its receiver-dependent format.
 Encryption.
 Compression.
Application Layer (7)
• The application layer enables the user,
whether human or software, to access the
network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for
services such as electronic mail, remote
file access and transfer, shared
database management, and other
types of distributed information
services.
Summary of OSI Layers
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• The first layered protocol model for internetwork
communications was created in the early 1970s
and is referred to as the Internet model. It defines
four categories of functions that must occur for
communications to be successful. The architecture
of the TCP/IP protocol suite follows the structure
of this model. Because of this, the Internet model
is commonly referred to as the TCP/IP model.
• The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to
the OSI model. Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP
protocol suite do not match exactly with those in
the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite
was defined as four software layers built upon the
hardware.
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• Today, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer
model with the layers named similarly to the
ones in the OSI model.
Comparison between OSI and
TCP/IP Protocol Suite • Here, two layers,
session and
presentation, are
missing from the
TCP/IP protocol suite.
These two layers
were not added to the
TCP/IP protocol suite
after the publication
of the OSI model. The
application layer in
the suite is usually
considered to be the
combination of three
layers in the OSI
model.
Comparison between OSI and
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• Two reasons were mentioned for this
decision.
• First, TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer
protocol. Some of the functionalities of the session
layer are available in some of the transport layer
protocols.
• Second, the application layer is not only one piece
of software. Many applications can be developed
at this layer. If some of the functionalities
mentioned in the session and presentation are
needed for a particular application, it can be
included in the development of that piece of
software.
 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol
•Suite
When we study the purpose of each layer, it is easier to
think of a private internet, instead of the global Internet.
Such an internet is made up of several small networks
called links.
• A link is a network that allows a set of computers to
communicate with each other. A link can be a LAN or
WAN.
• Our imaginary internet that is used to show the purpose
of each layer.
Physical Layer (1) TCP/IP

• TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the

physical layer. It supports all of the standard and proprietary
protocols.

• At this level, the communication is between two

hops or nodes, either a computer or router.

• The unit of communication is a single bit. When the

connection is established between the two nodes, a
stream of bits is flowing between them. The physical
layer, however, treats each bit individually.
Physical Layer (1) TCP/IP

• We are assuming that at this moment the two computers

have discovered that the most efficient way to communicate
with each other is via routers R1, R3, and R4.
Physical Layer (1) TCP/IP
• Computer A sends
each bit to router
R1 in the format of
the protocol used
by link 1. Router 1
sends each bit to
router R3 in the
format dictated by
the protocol used
by link 3. And so
on.

• Note that if a node

is connected to n
links, it needs n
physical-layer
protocols, one for
each link.
Data Link Layer (2) TCP/IP

• TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the

data link layer either. It supports all of the standard
and proprietary protocols.
• At this level, the communication is also between
two hops or nodes. The unit of communication
however, is a packet called a frame.
• A frame is a packet that encapsulates the data
received from the network layer with an added
header and sometimes a trailer.
• The head includes the source and destination of
frame. The destination address is needed to define
the right recipient of the frame. The source address
is needed for possible response or acknowledgment
as may be required by some protocols.
Data Link Layer (2) • Note that the frame
TCP/IP
that is travelling
between computer A
and router R1 may
be different from the
one travelling
between router R1
and R3.
• When the frame is
received by router
R1, this router
passes the frame to
the data link layer
protocol (left). The
frame is opened, the
data are removed.
• The data are then
passed to the data
link layer protocol
(right) to create a
new frame to be
Network Layer(3) TCP/IP

• At the network layer (or, more accurately, the

internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports the
Internet Protocol (IP).
• The Internet Protocol (IP) is the transmission
mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.
• IP transports data in packets called Datagrams,
each of which is transported separately.
Datagrams can travel along different routes and
can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated.
• IP does not keep track of the routes and has no
facility for reordering datagrams once they arrive
at their destination.
Network Layer(3) TCP/IP
Network Layer(3) TCP/IP

• Note that there is a main difference between the

communication at the network layer and the
communication at data link or physical layers:
Communication at the network layer is end to
end while the communication at the other two
layers are node to node.

• The datagram started at computer A is the one

that reaches computer B. The network layers of
the routers can inspect (check) the source and
destination of the packet for finding the best
route, but they are not allowed to change the
contents of the packet.
Transport Layer (4) TCP/IP

• There is a main difference between the transport

layer and the network layer.
Although all nodes in a network need to have the
network layer, only the two end computers need
to have the transport layer.

• The network layer is responsible for sending

individual datagrams from computer A to computer B;
the transport layer is responsible for delivering the
whole message, which is called a Segment, a user
datagram, or a packet, from A to B.
• A segment may consist of a few or tens of
datagrams. The segments need to be broken into
datagrams and each datagram has to be delivered to
the network layer for transmission.
Transport Layer (4) TCP/IP
• Since the
Internet defines
a different
route for each
datagram, the
datagrams may
arrive out of
order and may
be lost. The
transport layer
at computer B
needs to wait
until all of these
datagrams to
arrive,
assemble them
and make a
segment out of
them.
Transport Layer (4) TCP/IP

• Traditionally, the transport layer was represented in

the TCP/IP suite by two protocols:
1- Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): is a reliable
connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte stream
originating on one machine to be delivered without error on
any other machine in the internet. TCP also handles flow
control to make sure a fast sender cannot swamp a slow
receiver with more messages than it can handle.
2- User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is an unreliable,
connectionless protocol for applications that do not want
TCP’s sequencing or flow control and wish to provide
their own. It is also widely used for one-shot, client-
server-type request-reply queries and applications in
which prompt delivery is more important than accurate
delivery, such as transmitting speech or video. Its advantage
low overhead.
3- A new protocol called Stream Control Transmission
Protocol (SCTP) has been introduced in the last few years.
Application Layer (5) TCP/IP

• The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined

session, presentation, and application layers in the OSI model.
The application layer allows a user to access the services of our
private internet or the global Internet. Many protocols are
defined at this layer to provide services such as electronic mail,
file transfer, accessing the World Wide Web, and so on.

• Note that the communication at the application layer, like the one
at the transport layer, is end to end. A message generated at
computer A is sent to computer B without being changed
during the transmission.
Transport Layer (5) TCP/IP
 ADDRESSING
• Four levels of addresses are used in an internet
employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical address,
logical address, port address, and application-
specific address. Each address is related to a one
layer in the TCP/IP architecture:
Physical Addresses
• The physical address, also known as the link address, is the
address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN. It is included
in the frame used by the data link layer. It is the lowest-level
address.
• The size and format of these addresses vary
depending on the network. For example,
Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical
address that is imprinted on the network interface
card (NIC). LocalTalk (Apple), however, has a 1-
byte dynamic address that changes each time the
station comes up.
 Physical Addresses

Layer 2 addresses are only used to communicate

between devices on a single local network
Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Physical
Addresses
• Physical addresses can be either unicast (one
single recipient), multicast (a group of
recipients), or broadcast (to be received by all
systems in the network).

• Some networks support all three addresses.

Ethernet supports the unicast physical addresses
(6 bytes), the multicast addresses, and the
broadcast addresses.

• Some networks do not support the multicast or

broadcast physical addresses.
Logical Addresses
• Logical addresses are necessary for universal
communications that are independent of
underlying physical networks.
• Physical addresses are not adequate in an
internetwork environment where different
networks can have different address formats.
• A universal addressing system is needed in which
each host can be identified uniquely, regardless of
the underlying physical network. The logical addresses
are designed for this purpose.
• A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit address
that can uniquely define a host connected to the Internet. No
two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have
the same IP address.
Logical Addresses • The network layer,
however, needs to find
the physical address of
the next hop before the
packet can be
delivered. The network
Layer consults its
routing table and finds
the logical address of
the next hop to be F.
• Another protocol,
Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP), finds
the physical address of
router 1 that
corresponds to its
logical address (20).
Logical Addresses

Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast

Addresses
 The logical addresses can be either unicast (one
single recipient), multicast (a group of recipients),
or broadcast (all systems in the network). There
are limitations on broadcast addresses.
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
• Computers are devices that can run multiple
processes at the same time. The end objective of
Internet communication is a process
communicating with another process.
• For example, computer A can communicate with
computer C by using TELNET. At the same time,
computer A communicates with computer B by
using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
• For these processes to receive data simultaneously,
we need a method to label the different
processes. In the TCP/IP architecture, the label
assigned to a process is called a port address. A
port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.
Port Addresses
• Port address
is a 16-bit
address
represented
by one
decimal
number as
shown.
• 753 A 16-bit
port address
represented
as one single
number
 Port Addresses
 Some of these Addresses are:
▫ Domain Name System (DNS) - TCP/UDP Port 53
▫ Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - TCP Port 80
▫ Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - TCP Port 25
▫ Post Office Protocol (POP) - UDP Port 110 Telnet - TCP Port 23
▫ Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - UDP Port 67
▫ File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - TCP Ports 20 and 21

For more:
CCNA Exploration 4.0 Network Fundamentals,
Chapter Three Application Layer functionality &
Protocols (P. 24).
Application-Specific
Addresses
• Some applications have user-friendly addresses that
are designed for that specific application.
• Examples include the e-mail address (for example,
forouzan@[Link]) and the Universal Resource
Locator (URL) (for example, [Link]). The
first defines the recipient of an e-mail; the second is
used to find a document on the World Wide Web.
• These addresses, however, get changed to the
corresponding port and logical addresses by the
sending computer.