ENG211-Mechanics of

Deformable Bodies

Laborator
y Exercise
2
By Almira Dyan C.
Gutierrez
Topics

1. Elasticity, Rigidity & Shear

Stress

2. Stress Element

3. Axial Loads, Saint-Venant’s

Principle & Displacement

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1.
Elasticity,
Rigidity &
Shear
Stress
Let’s dive in
1. Stress and
Strain
A. Modulus of
Elasticity
1. Defined
2. Applications
3. Factors that effect it
B. Modulus of Rigidity
1. Defined
2. Applications
3. Factors that effect it
C. Shear Stress
D. Sample Problems
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A.1. Modulus of Elasticity
Defined
1. According to Hooke’s Law when a material is subjected to an
external load that is within its proportional limit, the stress is
directly proportional to the strain.
2. While the stress is still within the proportional limit, the ratio of
stress to strain is always constant this is known as the Modulus
of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus.
3. It is the mechanical property that measures the tensile or
compressive stiffness of a material when an external force is
applied to it.
4. If a material has a high modulus of elasticity, it means it will resist
deformation more than a material with a low modulus of elasticity.
5. As the modulus of elasticity increases, the modulus of rigidity also
increases proportionally.
6. It is defined as the ratio of stress to strain, where stress is the
external force applied per unit area, and strain is the resulting
deformation per unit length.

7. 11/04/2024Annual
The Modulus Review
of Elasticity is usually expressed in the following 5
A.2. Modulus of
Elasticity
Applications
1. Civil Engineering
1. The modulus of elasticity is used in the design and analysis of structures to
determine how components such as beams, columns and shafts react when
subjected to normal forces.
2. For example, when designing a bridge engineers need to determine the normal
stresses the bridge components can withstand.
2. Mechanical Engineering
1. The modulus of elasticity is used in the design and analysis of components such
as springs, shafts, and gears. By considering the modulus of elasticity engineers
can determine the stiffness, deflection, and deformation of components when
they’re subjected to external loads.
3. Biomedical Engineering
1. The modulus of elasticity is used in biomedical engineering to study how human
muscles, bones and tendons react when subjected to normal, shear, and
torsional stresses understanding this helps engineers in the design of prosthetic
limbs.
4. 11/04/2024Annual
Automotive Engineering
Review 6
A.3. Factors that
Effect the Modulus
ofMaterial
1. Elasticity
Composition
1. A material’s modulus of elasticity is determined by the material’s crystal structure,
bonding, and other factors related to its chemical composition.
2. Materials that have strong covalent bonds have high modulus of elasticity, while
materials weak metallic or ionic bonds have lower modulus of elasticity. For
example diamonds have a high modulus of elasticity because of its strong covalent
bonds, while copper have a low modulus of elasticity because of its metallic
bonding.
3. Materials with highly ordered crystal structure have high modulus of elasticity,
while materials with disordered crystal structure have a lower modulus of elasticity.
This is because materials with a highly ordered crystal structure have more rigid
bonds, which resist deformation more effectively. For example diamonds have a
high modulus of elasticity because of its ordered crystal structure, while glass have
a low modulus of elasticity because of its disordered crystal structure.
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A.3. Factors that Effect the
Modulus of Elasticity
2. Temperature
1. A material’s modulus of elasticity is effected by the material’s temperature. As
temperature increases, the modulus of elasticity decreases. This is because the
thermal energy causes the atoms and molecules in the material to vibrate more,
which can disrupt the bonds that hold the material together.
2. Materials that have strong intermolecular forces can withstand temperature
changes more than materials with weaker intermolecular forces. For example
metals have a high modulus of elasticity because of its strong intermolecular forces,
while polymers have lower modulus of elasticity because of its weaker
intermolecular forces which makes it more prone to temperature fluctuations.

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A.3. Factors that Effect the
Modulus of Elasticity
3. Applied Loads
1. A material’s modulus of elasticity is effected by the external
loads applied to the material. The modulus of elasticity
decreases when a material is subjected to increasing external
loads.
2. When the material is still in the elastic section, the
deformation is still reversible, this is because the material’s
crystal structure is still able to stretch and compress in
response to the applied external load.
3. When the material is in the plastic section it is able to deform
plastically, meaning it becomes permanently deformed when
the external load applied to it exceeds the proportional limit

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B.1. Modulus of Rigidity
Defined
1. The modulus of rigidity or shear modulus defines a
material’s rigidness when subjected to an external force.
2. It is the mechanical property that measures the shear or torsional
stiffness of a material when an external force is applied to it.
3. The modulus of rigidity is a measure of a materials resistance to
shear deformation. Shear deformation occurs when external
forces are applied tangential to the surface of the material.
4. As the modulus of elasticity increases, the modulus of rigidity
also increases proportionally.
5. It is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain.

6. The Modulus of Rigidity is usually expressed in the following

units:
1. MPa, Pa, PSI (pounds per inch)

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B.2. Modulus of Rigidity
Applications
1. Structural Design and Analysis
1. The modulus of rigidity is used in the design and analysis of structures to determine how
components such as beams, columns and shafts react when subjected to shear and torsional
forces.
2. For example, when designing a bridge engineers need to determine the shear and torsional
stresses the bridge components can withstand.
2. Aerospace Engineering
1. The modulus of rigidity is used in aerospace engineering to determine what materials should
be used for their components. For example, materials with a high shear modulus are used for
components such as airplane wings which are subjected to significant torsional stresses.
3. Biomedical Engineering
1. The modulus of rigidity is used in biomedical engineering to study how human muscles, bones
and tendons react when subjected to normal, shear, and torsional stresses understanding this
helps engineers in the design of prosthetic limbs.
4. Geotechnical Engineering
1. The modulus of rigidity is used in the analysis of soil and rock to determine how much shear
and torsional stress they can withstand which is very important in geotechnical design and
construction.
11/04/2024Annual Review Using this information engineers can better predict the behavior of soils and
11
B.3. Factors that
Effect the Modulus
ofMaterial
1. RigidityComposition
1. A material’s modulus of rigidity is determined by the material’s crystal structure,
bonding, and other factors related to its chemical composition.
2. Materials that have strong covalent bonds have high modulus of rigidity, while
materials weak metallic or ionic bonds have lower modulus of elasticity. For
example diamonds have a high modulus of rigidity because of its strong covalent
bonds, while copper have a low modulus of rigidity because of its metallic bonding.
3. Materials with highly ordered crystal structure have high modulus of rigidity, while
materials with disordered crystal structure have a lower modulus of rigidity. This is
because materials with a highly ordered crystal structure have more rigid bonds,
which resist deformation more effectively. For example diamonds have a high
modulus of rigidity because of its ordered crystal structure, while glass have a low
modulus of rigidity because of its disordered crystal structure.

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B.3. Factors that Effect the
Modulus of Rigidity
2. Temperature
1. A material’s modulus of rigidity is effected by the material’s temperature. As
temperature increases, the modulus of rigidity decreases. This is because the
thermal energy causes the atoms and molecules in the material to vibrate more,
which can disrupt the bonds that hold the material together.
2. Materials that have strong intermolecular forces can withstand temperature
changes more than materials with weaker intermolecular forces. For example
metals have a high modulus of rigidity because of its strong intermolecular forces,
while polymers have lower modulus of rigidity because of its weaker intermolecular
forces which makes it more prone to temperature fluctuations.

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B.3. Factors that Effect the
Modulus of Rigidity
3. Applied Loads
1. A material’s modulus of rigidity is effected by the external
loads applied to the material. The modulus of rigidity
decreases when a material is subjected to increasing external
loads.
2. When the material is still in the elastic section, the
deformation is still reversible, this is because the material’s
crystal structure is still able to stretch and compress in
response to the applied external load.
3. When the material is in the plastic section it is able to deform
plastically, meaning it becomes permanently deformed when
the external load applied to it exceeds the proportional limit

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C. Shear Stress()
1. Is a type of stress that occurs when a material is subjected to an
external force that causes its parallel planes to slide past one
another.
2. Is a type of stress that occurs when a material is subjected to an
external load that tends to cut or divide it.
3. Shear stress is a type of stress that acts coplanar with the cross-
section of a material. It differs from compressive and tensile
stresses which are caused by forces perpendicular to the area on
which they act on.
4. The amount of deformation that occurs is proportional to the
magnitude of applied stress and the material’s property.
5. It tends to cut, divide or slide.

a. = Average shear force at the section

b. V = shear force
c. A = Area
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 C. Shear Stress ()
1. An example of this can be found in bolts and fasteners. When a
bolt is tightened, it is subjected to shear stress as the threads on
the bolt engage with the threads on the nut, causing the bolt to
stretch and deform.
2. Another example of this can be found in scissors. When an
external force is applied to the handle of the scissors the two
blades join together at the pivot and apply a shear force to the
material between them. The material between the scissors
experiences compressive force which causes it to be cut, while the
shear force is the force that actually severs the material.

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D. Sample
Problems
1. Modulus of Elasticity
2. Modulus of Rigidity
3. Shear Stress

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D. Sample
Problems
1. Modulus of Elasticity
1. A 90 kg mountain climber hangs from a nylon rope and stretches it by 25 cm. If the
rope was originally 30 m long with a diameter of 1 cm. What is the Young’s Modulus for
the nylon rope?

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D. Sample
Problems
1. Modulus of Elasticity
2. A steel wire 2m long with a circular cross-section must stretch no more than 0.25cm
when it is subjected to a 400N weight. What minimum diameter must this wire have?.
Given

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D. Sample
Problems
2. Modulus of Rigidity
1. A cylindrical bar of 20 mm in diameter and 1 m in length is subjected to a tensile test.
Its longitudinal strain is four times that of its lateral strain. If the , determine the bar’s
modulus of rigidity.

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D. Sample
Problems
2. Modulus of Rigidity
2. Two 1.75 inch thick rubber pads are each placed between metal plates. Find the
displacement of the middle plate when a 1200lb load is applied. Consider only the
deformation of rubber. Given and .

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D. Sample
Problems
3. Shear Stress
1. A hole is to be punched out of a plate having a shearing strength of 40ksi. The
compressive stress in the punch is limited to 50ksi. a) Determine the maximum thickness
of plate in which a hole 2.5in in diameter can be punched. B) If the plate is 0.25in thick
determine the diameter of the smallest hole that can be punched.

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D. Sample
Problems
3. Shear Stress
2. The members of the structure weigh 200lb/ft. Determine the smallest diameter pin
that can be used at A if the shearing stress is limited to 5000psi. Assume a single
shear.

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2. Stress
Element

Let’s dive in
2. Stress
Element
A. Stress Element
1. Defined
2. Types of Stress
Elements
B. Sample Problems

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A.1. Stress Element
Defined
1. The stress element is a concept that is used when we’re designing
and analyzing combined stresses.
2. This is used to model two-dimensional and three-dimensional
stress components.
3. The stress element for two-dimensional elements assumes that
stress variations via the material’s thickness are negligible. This
assumption is valid when the thickness of the material is much
smaller than the characteristic dimensions of the problem.
4. To determine the stresses within a material with multiple
components, we have to divide it into small manageable
components. The stress element, typically represented by a finite
element is used to approximate the behavior of the structure. We
use the stress element to determine the stress distribution within
a material.

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A.2. Types of Stress
Elements
1. Original Stress Element

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A.2. Types of Stress
Elements
1. Original Stress Element
1. The original stress element is an infinitesimally small representation of the stress
within a material that is isolated for analysis. By isolating and analyzing
infinitesimally small volumes of a material, we can further understand stress, strain,
and deformations.
2. By isolating and analyzing the original stress element we can determine how the
material will react when subjected to an external load, and the deformations the
material goes through.
3. The original stress element is characterized by its stress components:
1. , (Normal Stress): Which acts perpendicular to the surface of the material.
2. (Shear stress): Which acts parallel to the surface of the material.
4. The concept of the original stress element serves as a basis for analyzing stress
distribution in components.

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A.2. Types of Stress
Elements
2. Maximum Shear Stress Element

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A.2. Types of Stress
Elements
2. Maximum Shear Stress Element
1. The maximum shear stress is an infinitesimally small representation of the
maximum shear stress within the material.
2. By isolating and analyzing the maximum shear stress element we can determine
how the material will react when subjected to external loads.
3. The maximum shear stress element helps us understand how the shear stresses are
distributed within a material, which helps us determine the material’s ultimate
strength and yield limit.
4. The maximum shear stress element is characterized by:
1. (Average normal stress): Average normal stress which acts perpendicular to the surface
of the material.
2. (Maximum shear stress): Maximum shear stress that acts parallel to the surface of the
material and is caused by forces tangential to the material’s surface.
3. (Angle of twist) or (Maximum hear stress angle): Which defines the direction of the
shear stresses
5. By analyzing the shear stress components, we can determine the material’s
resistance to shearing forces.
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A.2. Types of Stress
Elements
3. Principle Stress Element

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A.2. Types of Stress
Elements
3. Principle Stress Element
1. The principle shear stress is an infinitesimally small representation of the principle
stresses within the material.
2. By isolating and analyzing the principle stress element we can determine how the
material will react when subjected to external loads.
3. The principle stress element helps us understand how the normal stresses are
distributed within a material with an angle of inclination, which helps us determine
the material’s ultimate strength and yield limit.
4. The principle stress element is characterized by its stress components:
1. , (Principle Stress): Which acts perpendicular to the surface of the material.
2. (Principle stress angle): Which defines the direction of the normal stresses

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B. Sample
Problems
1. Original Stress Element
2. Maximum Shear Stress
Element
3. Principle Stress Element

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B. Sample
Problems
1. Original Stress Element
1. The state of plane stress at a point is represented in the figure. Determine the stresses
acting on the element when it is oriented clockwise with respect to the original element.

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B. Sample
Problems
1. Original Stress Element
2. Determine the equivalent state of stress on the element if it was oriented clockwise
from the original element.

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B. Sample
Problems
2-3. Principle and Maximum Shear Stress
Elements
1. The state of stress at a point is shown in the figure. Determine (a) the principal
stresses and (b) the maximum shear stress and average normal stress at the point.
Specify the orientation of the element in each case.

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B. Sample
Problems
2-3. Principle and Maximum Shear Stress
Elements
2. The state of stress at a point is shown in the figure. Determine (a) the principal
stresses and (b) the maximum shear stress and average normal stress at the point.
Specify the orientation of the element in each case.

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3. Axial
Loads,
Displaceme
nt and
Saint-
Venant’s
Let’s dive in

Principle
2. Axial Loads,
Displacement and
Saint Venant’s
Principle
A. Axial Loads
1. Defined
2. Types of Axial Stress and
Strain
B. Displacement
1. Defined
C. Saint-Venant’s Principle
1. Defined
D. Sample Problems
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A.1. Axial Loads Defined
1. Forces that act on a material’s longitudinal axis are referred to as
axial loads. The deformation caused by these loads are
elongation(tensile forces) and compression(compressive forces).
2. Axial loads are characterized by their magnitude, direction and
point of application.
3. When a material is subjected to axial loads they experience
stress and strain. The stress is the measure of the materials
internal resistance to deformation, while the strain is the
measure of the materials deformation when it is subjected to
external loads.
4. The amount of axial deformation that occurs is determined by the
applied loads, material, and the area of the material.

1. =

2. =

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A.2. Types of Axial
Loads
1. Compression
a. Stress
b. Strain
2. Tension
a. Stress
b. Strain

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1. Compression
a. Compressive Stress()
1. Is a type of stress that occurs when a material is subjected to an
external load that tends to squeeze or compress it.
2. Compressive stress can cause a material to undergo
deformation, such as compression or squeezing.
3. The amount of deformation that occurs is proportional to the
magnitude of applied stress and the material’s property.

1. =
2.
3. =

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1. Compression
a. Compressive Stress()
1. An example of this can be found in the construction of buildings
and other structures. When a building is subjected to the weight
of its own material, it experiences compressive stress through its
structure. This stress must then be accounted for in the design of
the building, to ensure that it can withstand the forces acting on it
without collapsing or deforming.
2. Another example of this can be found in sponges. When a sponge
is subjected to an external load the squeezes it.

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1.
Compression
b. Compressive Strain()
1. Is the ratio of change in length of a line per unit length.
2. Normal strain being change in length of a line per unit
length, is a dimensionless quantity. However units such as
in/in or mm/mm are frequently used for normal strain.
3. If the normal strain is negative this indicates compression,
if positive it indicates tension.

1. =
2. (Delta) = Deformation
3. L’=Deformed length
4. = Original length

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2. Tension
a. Tensile Stress()
1. Is a type of stress that occurs when a material is subjected to an
external load that tends to stretch or pull it apart.
2. Tensile stress can cause a material to undergo deformation, such
as stretching or elongation.
3. It tends to elongate a material. The amount of deformation that
occurs is proportional to the magnitude of applied stress and the
material’s property.

1. =

2. =

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2. Tension
a. Tensile Stress()
1. An example of this can be found in the design of bridges. When
a bridge cable is suspended between two columns, it
experiences tensile stress as the weight of the bridge deck and
other materials on it pulls down the cable. The cable must be
able to withstand this tensile stress, as well as any other
external force that may act on it, to ensure that the bridge
doesn’t collapse or deform.
2. Another example of this can be found in a ship’s anchor chain.
When the anchor is dropped in the ocean bed it experiences
compressive stress as the weight of the anchor halts the ship’s
movement the anchor chain experiences tensile stress. The
anchor chain must be able to withstand the weight of the ship,
the weight of the anchor, as well as any other external forces
acting on it without rupturing or deforming.

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2. Tension
b. Tensile Strain()
1. Is the ratio of change in length of a line per unit length.
2. Normal strain being change in length of a line per unit
length, is a dimensionless quantity. However units such as
in/in or mm/mm are frequently used for normal strain.
3. If the normal strain is negative this indicates compression,
if positive it indicates tension.

1. =
2. (Delta) = Deformation
3. L’=Deformed length
4. = Original length

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B.1. Displacement Defined
1. Displacement is the measure of a materials change in position. The
displacement defines how an object moves when it is subjected to an
external forces.
2. The displacement is a vector quantity so it has both a magnitude and a
direction.
3. Displacement is characterized by its magnitude, direction and initial
position. Its measured with respect to its initial position. The direction of
the displacement relative to its initial position is indicated by positive
and negative signs.
4. Types of Displacement:
1. Translational displacement: The materials change in position along a
straight line.
2. Rotational displacement: The materials change in rotation.
3. Deformation displacement: The materials change in shape and size.

1. P=Force
2. L=Length
3. A=Area
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4. E=Young’s Modulus
C.1. Saint-Venant’s
Principle Defined
1. The Saint-Venant’s principle also known as the principle of local uniformity is a
concept for analyzing the distribution of stresses and deformations in materials. This
concept assumes that as distance from the load increases the effects of those loads
decreases.
2. This principle assumes that the stresses and strains within a material become
uniform within a certain distance from a localized load. This distance is the Saint-
Venant’s zone or region of influence. Outside of this zone the effects of the localized
loads are considered negligible.
1. Saint Venant’s zone is the
longest distance of the cross-
sectional area that is within
the elastic region.

2. P = Internal normal force

3. L = Original length
4. A = Cross-sectional Area
5. E = Modulus of Elasticity
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D. Sample
Problems
1. Axial Loads
1. Stress
2. Strain
2. Displacement
3. Saint-Venant’s
Principle

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D. Sample
Problems
1. Axial
Loads
1. Axial Stress (C and T)
1. For the truss shown in the figure. Calculate the stresses in members CE, DE, and DF.
Given that the cross-sectional area of each member is 1.8in2. Indicate tension or
compression.

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D. Sample
Problems
1. Axial
Loads
1. Axial Stress (C and T)
2. For the truss shown in the figure. Calculate the stresses in members BC, BD, and CF.
Given that the cross-sectional area of each member is 1600mm2. Indicate Tension or
Compression.

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D. Sample
Problems
1. Axial
Loads
2. Axial Strain
[Link] to loading , the plate is deformed into the dashed shape. Determine the average
normal strain along the side AB, and the average shear strain in the plate at A relative to
the x and y axis.

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D. Sample
Problems
1. Axial
Loads
2. Axial Strain
2. An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5in2 carries the axial loads
applied at the position. Compute the total change in length of the bar if E=10x106psi.
Assume the bar is suitably braced to prevent lateral buckling.

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D. Sample
Problems
2.
Displacemen
1. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 300mm and a length of 150m is
2

tunit mass of steel is 7850 kg/m and E=200*10 MN/m , find the total elongation of the
suspended vertically from one end. It supports a load of 20kN at the lower end. If the
3 3 2

rod.

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D. Sample
Problems
2.
Displacemen
2. The rigid bar AB is attached to two vertical rods, is horizontal before the load P is
t
applied. Determine the vertical movement of P if its magnitude is 50kN.

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D. Sample
Problems
3. Saint Venant’s
Principle
1. The 2omm diameter steel rod is subjected to the axial forces shown in the figure.
Determine the displacement of end C with respect to the fixed support at A. Given
E=200GPa.

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D. Sample
Problems
3. Saint Venant’s
Principle
2. The 30mm diameter steel rod is subjected to the loading shown in the figure.
Determine the displacement of the end of C. Given E=200GPa.

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D. Sample
Problems
3. Saint Venant’s
Principle
3. The 20mm diameter aluminum rod is subjected to the uniform distributed axial
load. Determine the displacement of end A. If E=73100 MPA

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