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Life Is Work
Living cells require energy from outside sources to
do work
The work of the cell includes assembling polymers,
membrane transport, moving, and reproducing
Animals can obtain energy to do this work by feeding
on other animals or photosynthetic organisms
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Figure 9.1a
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Energy flows into an ecosystem as sunlight and
leaves as heat
The chemical elements essential to life are recycled
Photosynthesis generates O2 and organic molecules,
which are used in cellular respiration
Cells use chemical energy stored in organic
molecules to generate ATP, which powers work
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Cellular respiration includes both aerobic and
anaerobic respiration but is often used to refer to
aerobic respiration
Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are all
consumed as fuel, it is helpful to trace cellular
respiration with the sugar glucose
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP + heat)
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Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction
The transfer of electrons during chemical reactions
releases energy stored in organic molecules
This released energy is ultimately used to synthesize
ATP
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The Principle of Redox
Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between
reactants are called oxidation-reduction reactions, or
redox reactions
In oxidation, a substance loses electrons, or is
oxidized
In reduction, a substance gains electrons, or is
reduced (the amount of positive charge is reduced)
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The electron donor is called the reducing agent
The electron receptor is called the oxidizing agent
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Stepwise Energy Harvest via NAD+ and the
Electron Transport Chain
In cellular respiration, glucose and other organic
molecules are broken down in a series of steps
Electrons from organic compounds are usually first
transferred to NAD+, a coenzyme
As an electron acceptor, NAD+ functions as an
oxidizing agent during cellular respiration
Each NADH (the reduced form of NAD+) represents
stored energy that is tapped to synthesize ATP
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Figure 9.4
NAD+ NADH
Dehydrogenase
Reduction of NAD+
2[H]
(from food) Oxidation of NADH
Nicotinamide Nicotinamide
(oxidized form) (reduced form)
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NADH passes the electrons to the electron
transport chain
Unlike an uncontrolled reaction, the electron
transport chain passes electrons in a series of steps
instead of one explosive reaction
O2 pulls electrons down the chain in an energy-
yielding tumble
The energy yielded is used to regenerate ATP
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The process that generates almost 90% of the ATP
is called oxidative phosphorylation because it is
powered by redox reactions
A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and
the citric acid cycle by substrate-level
phosphorylation
For each molecule of glucose degraded to CO 2 and
water by respiration, the cell makes up to 32
molecules of ATP
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Quick review on Glycolysis , krebs & oxidative
phosphorylation
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Concept 9.4: During oxidative phosphorylation,
chemiosmosis couples electron transport to
ATP synthesis
Following glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, NADH
and FADH2 account for most of the energy extracted
from food
These two electron carriers donate electrons to the
electron transport chain, which powers ATP
synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation
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The Pathway of Electron Transport
The electron transport chain is in the inner
membrane (cristae) of the mitochondrion
Most of the chain’s components are proteins, which
exist in multiprotein complexes
Electrons drop in free energy as they go down the
chain and are finally passed to O2, forming H2O
Electron carriers alternate between reduced and
oxidized states as they accept and donate electrons
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Electrons are transferred from NADH or FADH2 to
the electron transport chain
Electrons are passed through a number of proteins
including cytochromes (each with an iron atom) to
O2
The electron transport chain generates no ATP
directly
It breaks the large free-energy drop from food to O 2
into smaller steps that release energy in
manageable amounts
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Figure 9.UN09
CITRIC OXIDATIVE
PYRUVATE
GLYCOLYSIS ACID PHOSPHORYL-
OXIDATION
CYCLE ATION
ATP
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Figure 9.13
NADH (least electronegative)
50
2 e– NAD+
Complexes I-IV
FADH2
each consist of
2 e– FAD multiple proteins
Free energy (G) relative to O2 (kcal/mol)
40 FMN I with electron
Fe•S Fe•S II carriers.
Q
III
Cyt b
30 Fe•S
Cyt c1
IV
Cyt c
Cyt a
Electron transport Cyt a3
20 chain
10 2 e–
2 H+ + ½ O2
0 (most electronegative)
H2O
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Figure 9.13a
NADH (least electronegative)
50
2 e–
NAD+
Free energy (G) relative to O2 (kcal/mol) FADH2 Complexes I-IV
each consist of
2 e– FAD multiple proteins
40 I with electron
FMN
II carriers.
Fe•S Fe•S
Q
III
Cyt b
30 Fe•S
Cyt c1
IV
Cyt c
Cyt a
Electron transport chain Cyt a3
20
10 2 e–
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Figure 9.13b
30
Cyt c1
Free energy (G) relative to O2 (kcal/mol)
IV
Cyt c
Cyt a
Cyt a3
20
10 2 e–
2 H+ + ½ O2
0 (most electronegative)
H2O
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Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling
Mechanism
The energy released as electrons are passed down
the electron transport chain is used to pump H + from
the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space
H+ then moves down its concentration gradient back
across the membrane, passing through the protein
complex ATP synthase
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H+ moves into binding sites on the rotor of ATP
synthase, causing it to spin in a way that catalyzes
phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
This is an example of chemiosmosis, the use of
energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work
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Figure 9.14
H+ Stator
INTERMEMBRANE SPACE
Rotor
Internal rod
Catalytic knob
ADP
+
Pi ATP
MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX
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Certain electron carriers in the electron transport
chain accept and release H+ along with the electrons
In this way, the energy stored in a H + gradient across
a membrane couples the redox reactions of the
electron transport chain to ATP synthesis
The H+ gradient is referred to as a proton-motive
force, emphasizing its capacity to do work
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Figure 9.15
H+ ATP
Protein H+
H+ synthase
complex H+
of electron Cyt c
carriers
IV
Q
I III
II
2 H+ + ½ O2 H2O
FADH2 FAD
NADH NAD+
ADP + P i ATP
(carrying electrons
from food) H+
1 Electron transport chain 2 Chemiosmosis
Oxidative phosphorylation
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Figure 9.15a
H+
H+
Protein H+
complex
of electron Cyt c
carriers
IV
Q
I III
II
2 H+ + ½ O2 H2O
FADH2 FAD
NADH NAD+
(carrying electrons
from food)
1 Electron transport chain
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Figure 9.15b
ATP
synthase
H+
ADP + P i ATP
H+
2 Chemiosmosis
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An Accounting of ATP Production by Cellular
Respiration
During cellular respiration, most energy flows in this
sequence:
glucose → NADH → electron transport chain →
proton-motive force → ATP
About 34% of the energy in a glucose molecule is
transferred to ATP during cellular respiration, making
about 32 ATP
The rest of the energy is lost as heat
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