CHAPTER TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN

ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
Human Evolution

1
 Conti..

There are two antagonistic views about the origin of

human beings, the creationist and scientific views.
The creationist view believes that human was created
by a supernatural force with all complete physical
shape and structure.
The scientific view state that the earth was formed
entirely by natural processes rather than by divine
power. 2
 Conti..

• Charles Drawin in his work entitled the "Origin

of Species by Natural Selection'' explains that
human beings developed from lower beings
through a gradual and natural process of change.
• According to evolution theory, the globe had been
formed at about 4. 5 billion years B. P.
• The earliest life appeared between 3 and 1 billion years
B. P. Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and
3
other small beings emerged at c.800 million years B. P.
 Cont…

Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift

Valley is the cradle of human race.
Evidences related to both biological and cultural evolution
have been discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash
River valleys both by Ethiopian and foreign scholars.
A fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million years B.
P. was discovered in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007.
Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years
B.P.) was discovered in Middle Awash 4
 Conti..

• Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was

discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.

Other remain Australopithecines were discovered at Belohdelie

(dated back 3.6 million years B. P.) in Middle Awash valley.

A three years old child’s fossil named as Australopithecus

afarensis,(Selam) dated to 3.3 million years B.P was also

discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000. 5

 Cont…

Another remain Australopithecus afarnesis

(Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.)
with 40% complete body parts was discovered at
Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D.
Fossil named Australopithecus anamensis was
discovered around Lake Turkana.

6
Fossil of Lucy/Dinkinesh
 Conti..

Different evidences of the genus homo have been

recovered in different parts of Ethiopia and the
Horn.
A fossil named as Homo habilis, which is derived
from Latin terms "Homo" (human being)
"Habilis" (skillful use of hands), dated 1.9 million
years B. P. has been found in the Lower Omo.

8
9
A fossil named Homo erectus (walking upright) dated 1. 6
million years B. P.) was discovered at Melka Kunture,
Konso Gardula and Gadeb.
• Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and
then spread out to the rest of the world.
• Skeleton of Homo sapiens (knowledgeable human
being) dated 400, 000 years B.P.) discovered in Middle
Awash.

10
11
12
13
 Conti..

• Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-

economic transformation on human life.
• It can be conventionally grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
• The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-periods. These are;

• The Paleolithic(old stone age) from 3.8 million to 11, 000 years B.P.

when in this period human beings ;

 Sheltered in cave

 Developed language

 used stone and bone for food preparation

 Labor division based age and gender

• Mesolithic (middle stone age) from 10,000- 6,000 BP.

• Transition period between Paleolithic and Neolithic. 14

 Conti..

Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human

beings. By taking their features, ways and period of production.

• Stone tools can be grouped in to Mode I (Olduwan, which was named

based on the first report made at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania),

• Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul,

France)

• Mode III (Sangoan) named after the site of Sango Bay in Uganda.

15
 Conti..

The Mode I stone tools are mainly characterized by

crude and mono-facial styles, and were produced by

the direct percussion.

Olduwan stone tool by Homo habilis 16

 Conti..

• Mode II stone tools were produced by indirect

percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, and
mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and
convex features.

17
Acheulean tool by Homo erectus
 Conti..

Mode III stone tools are characterized by flexible

and fine form of production by the use of obsidian.

Sangoan stone tool

18
 Neolithic Revolution
• During the Neolithic period human beings
transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life.
This was a radical shift involving changes from
hunting and gathering to the domestication of
plants and animals.
• Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers’
population resulted in the declining number of
animals and availability of plants. 19
 Cont…

• The process of domestication took place

independently in the various parts of the world.
• In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more
raised and wetter-parts, people cultivated plants
including Teff, dagussa, nug, enset.
• The domestication of enset reduced shifting
cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots),
slowing down soil exhaustion. 20
• The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, crushing
stones, beads, stone figures and animal remains in sites
like Emba-Fakeda in Tigray as well as Aqordat and
Barentu in Eritrea evidences the existence of Neolithic
material culture.
• The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us
agricultural stone tools.
• Remains associated with domesticated cattle and
vegetables have been excavated from Lalibela Cave on
the southeastern shore of Lake Tana. 21
 The Peopling of the Region Languages and Linguistic Processes

Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked

by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are
about 90 languages with 200 dialects in
Ethiopia and the Horn. Under this apparent
diversity, there is some degree of unity.

22
 Conti..
A linguists classified languages into four super
families or proto-languages.
Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo and
Khoisan.

Among them; Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan

are spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn
Super language families of Africa
 Conti..

• 1. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into three

super families: Cushitic Semitic and Omotic.
1.1 Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four
branches:
 Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern
Eritrea bordering the Sudan.
 Central: Agaw includes Awigna, Kunfel, Qimant;
Hamtanga and Bilen.
25
 Conti..
 Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic
groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji,
Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba,
Kambata, Konso, Libido, Oromo, Saho,
Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, etc.
 Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya
and Nbugua in Tanzania. 26
 1.2. Semitic: is also divided into two:
 North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border);
Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland
Eritrea and Tigray).
 South: is further divided into two:

Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.

Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).

• 1.3. Omotic: spoken around Omo valley. Anfillo, Ari, Banna,

Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo,
Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Melo, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho,
Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc 27
 Conti..

2. Nilo-Saharan: the majority of the speakers

of this languages live in the present regional
states of Beni-Shangul and Gambella. Anuak,
Berta, Gumuz, Komo, Kunama, Kwama,
Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara,
Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and
Uduk.
28
 Conti..

Language classification did not remain static.

Factors like population movements, warfare, trade,
religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc.
have resulted in intense linguistic processes that
forced languages to be affected or intermingled.

In this process, some languages died out or have

been in danger of extinction while others prospered
over time. 29
 Settlement Patterns

A settlement pattern, the distribution of peoples

across the landscape, is the results of long
historical processes in northeast Africa.

In some areas, settlement was dense and in

other areas sparse.

Some people inhabited extensive highlands

and others the lowlands. 30
 Conti..

• Based on historical linguistic and history of inter-peoples

relations, studies indicate that environmental, socio-
economic, and political processes significantly shaped
and reshaped the spatial distribution of peoples in the
region.
• Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had
inhabited the area between the Red Sea in the east and
Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to
different directions. 31
 Cont..

In due course, the Cushite's have changed to be the largest

linguistic group in Ethiopia and the Horn and have also spread
over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
Similarly, the Semitic peoples spread over large area and
eventually settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south
central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
The Semites are the second majority people next to the Cushites.
The majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern
Ethiopia along the Omo River basin.
32
 Economic Formations

The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity

two interdependent modes of life: agriculture and
pastoralism. While there may be pure pastoralists, it is
very rare to think of a farmer without a head of cattle or
two.

Similarly, in Ethiopia and the Horn, these two forms of

livelihood have coexisted and quite often intermingled.
Topographic features and climatic conditions largely
influenced economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
33
 Conti..

• A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the

eastern lowland region since early periods. Pastoral
economy namely the production of camel, goat, and
cattle has been the
most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho
and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo.
• While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash
River, the Somali have owed a great deal to Wabi Shebelle
and Genale (Jubba) Rivers.
• Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming. It is here that
sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least since 10, 000
34
years B. P. by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups.
 Cont..

• The major economic activity of the Omotic has been mixed

farming and have predominantly practiced pastoralism and
fishing.
• In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the
dominant economic formations were pastoralism, shifting
agriculture, fishing, beekeeping and hunting.
• For instance, sorghum, millet, cotton and other crops have
been largely cultivated in the lowlands along Ethio-Sudanese
border since antiquity.
35
 Cont..

• The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers

have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a
staple food.
• Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high
economic and social values. Berta and other Nilotes had
trade and other social contacts with northern Sudan.

36
 Religion and Religious Processes

1. Indigenous Religion
• This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices,
which are native to the region and have been followed by
the local people since ancient times.
• A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in
Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to
natural phenomena, which are considered sacred.

37
 Cont..

• Some major indigenous religious groups that still claim

adherents among the region's population.
Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one
Supreme Being called Waqa. Waqa's power is manifested
through the spirits called Ayyana.
The major spirits include Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit),
Atete (women and animal fertility spirit), Awayi/Tiyyana
(sanctity spirit), Balas (victory spirit), Chato/Dora (wild
animals defender), Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit),
38
Jaricha (peace spirit), Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc.
 Cont..

• There is also a belief that the dead

exist in the form of a ghost called
Ekera in the surrounding of his/her
residence after death, or his/her
cemetery (Hujuba).
• There is thanks giving festival called
Irrecha besides New Year (Birbo) rite.
• Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as
Waa, who is believed to exist before everything
(hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and
whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and
agana (moon).
 Conti..

The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky

God and religious officials known as Magnancho.
The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and
had thanks giving ceremony called Deraro.
The Konso religion is centered on worship of
Waaq/Wakh.
The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being
Diban (Sky God). 40
 Conti..
• Among sections of the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita
(Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and Damwamwit
(health goddess).
• Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God). So’ala clan was considered
as the top in religious duties as it was in charge of Shashokam
(the most vital deity).
• The Wolayta, Dawuro and Konta called God Tosa and spirit
Ayyana including Tawa-Tosa /Moytiliya (father‟s spirit),
Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit),
Dada (lightening spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit),
41
Gomashera (war spirit), etc.
• The Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo and a person who crowds
Eqo is known as Alamo or eke-nayo. Father of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno and
its host is called dochi-nayo with residence at Adio.
• Harvest spirit is called Kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo.
• The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power called Iqa, which created
everything and controls over the universe.
• The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven), but believe in the
coming of God through rain, lightning and thunder, and rainbow is
necklace of God.
• Sun and moon as well as other entities are also manifestation or sign
of God. There are also spirits associated with clans pears names such
as WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder.
• An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices and beliefs are
fused with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as
42
syncretism.
 2. Judaism

• Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that

Yahweh (God)established with the ancient Hebrew
community.
• Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia
and the Horn by peoples before Christianity reached the
region.
• Before Christianity, Judaism has been followed by peoples of
Ethiopia and the Horn.
• The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices,
which are generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs
43
from Rabbinic Judaism).
 Cont..

• Many of the Bete-Israel accounts trace their

religion from the very ancient migration of some
portion of the tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is
said by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the time of
the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.).
• The Jews developed and lived for centuries in
northern and northwestern Ethiopia.

44
 3. Christianity
• Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the
reign of King Ezana (r.320-360), who dropped pre
Christian gods like Ares, Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth
god), and embraced Christianity.
• Ezana was converted to Christianity by Syrian brothers,
Aedesius and Fremnatos.
• When Fremnatos (Abba Salama) visited Alexandria,
Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first
Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC). 45
 Conti..

• Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in

Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios
became the first Ethiopian Patriarch
• Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society
during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine
Saints
• The expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period
(1150-1270) and chiefly gained fresh momentum during the
early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches
and monasteries were constructed. 46
 4. Islam

• When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca

since 610 AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers.
• Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early
followers to Aksum including his daughter Rukiya and her
husband Uthman as well as the Prophet's future wives Umm
Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum .
• The first group of refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib.

• In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia,

"…a king under whom none are persecuted. 47
• It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from
what you are suffering."
• Then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar
or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave them shelter
from 615-28.
• Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the
refugees, but the king did not obey.
• Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a
mountain of gold I would not give up these people who
have taken refugees with me. 48
 Conti..

• Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely

through peaceful ways including
trade.
• Islam was well established in Dahlak Islands on the Red
Sea by the beginning of the eighth century.
• In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the
islands developed a sultanate.
• In due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea
coast.
• the Dahlak route played a minor role in the
introduction of Islam because of, Christianity
was strongly deep-rooted as a state religion in
Aksum and open preaching of Islam was
prohibited.
 Conti..

• The port of Zeila on western coast of the Gulf of

Aden served as an important gateway for the
introduction of Islam mainly into the present day
Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
• Islam firmly established itself in the coastal
areas by the eighth and ninth centuries.
• From there, it radiated to central, southern, and
eastern Ethiopia through the role of Muslim
clerics who followed in the footsteps of traders.
 Conti..

• In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of

Bale, a Muslim saint (Waliy) of medieval period, played
very important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale,
Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the
Horn.
• Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar cave.

51