Evolution
What is Natural selection
• is a process in evolution Three conditions
where organisms with
traits that are better Genetic Variability: This refers to the existence of
suited to their differences, or variations, in the traits within a
population. These differences are caused by
environment are more mutations, gene shuffling during reproduction, or other
genetic processes.
likely to survive,
reproduce, and pass on Trait Must Be Inherited: The traits that vary
those advantageous within a population must be heritable, meaning they
can be passed from parents to offspring
traits to the next
generation
Differential Reproduction: Individuals with
certain traits (those better suited to their environment)
are more likely to survive and reproduce.
Artificial selection
• is a process in which
humans intentionally Types of Artificial Selection
select for specific traits in
plants or animals to Inbreeding:Involves mating closely related
produce desired individuals to preserve certain traits
characteristics in future Outbreeding :Involves breeding individuals
generations. from different populations or even different
species to introduce new traits or increase
genetic diversity.
Cross-breeding:Cross-breeding involves
mating two different breeds or varieties
within the same species to combine desirable
traits from both parents.
Speciation
is the evolutionary process Types of Speciation
through which new species • Allopatric Speciation (Geographic
arise from an existing one, Isolation)
• Sympatric Speciation
resulting in two or more
distinct species that are
reproductively isolated
from each other.
Allopatric speciation
• Allopatric speciation occurs when a population is divided by a
geographic barrier (such as mountains, rivers, oceans, or other
landscape features) that prevents individuals from interbreeding.
• How does it occur?
• A population is split into two or more geographically isolated groups.
Over time, due to different selective pressures, mutations, and genetic
drift, these groups accumulate genetic differences. Eventually, these
differences are so significant that even if the populations were brought
back together, they could no longer interbreed successfully.
Sympatric speciation
• In sympatric speciation, new species arise without geographic isolation.
This process occurs when a population evolves reproductive isolation
while still living in the same area.
• How does it occur?
• Sympatric speciation often involves changes in ecological niches,
behavior, or genetic mutations that lead to reproductive isolation. This
can occur through mechanisms such as polyploidy (especially in plants),
habitat differentiation, or sexual selection.
Geographical Isolation
• Geographical isolation occurs when a
population is physically separated
into two or more groups by a
geographical barrier, such as
mountains, rivers, oceans, or deserts.
• This prevents individuals from
different groups from coming into
contact and interbreeding.
• The population is split into isolated
groups due to the barrier. Each group
experiences different environmental
conditions, selective pressures, or
genetic drift, leading to divergence
over time.
Reproductive Isolation
Reproductive isolation refers Reproductive isolation can
to the inability of two happen through prezygotic
populations to interbreed and (before fertilization) or
produce fertile offspring, postzygotic (after
even if they live in the same fertilization) barriers. These
geographical area. This can barriers prevent successful
occur due to various mating, fertilization, or the
biological, behavioral, or production of viable, fertile
genetic factors. offspring.
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
• is a principle in population genetics that describes the genetic makeup of a population that is not
evolving. In a population that is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the frequencies of alleles and
genotypes remain constant from one generation to the next, given that certain conditions are
met.
• Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:
• Large Population Size: The population must be large enough to minimize the effects of genetic
drift
• No Mutation: There must be no changes to the genetic material.
• Random Mating: Individuals must pair by chance, not according to their genotypes or
phenotypes. There should be no mating preference for specific alleles.
• Isolation of the population: There should be no gene flow, meaning no individuals enter or
leave the population, so no new alleles are introduced or removed.
• No Natural Selection: All individuals must have equal chances of survival and reproduction,
regardless of their genotypes. No allele should provide a survival or reproductive advantage over
another.
Microevolution
• refers to small-scale evolutionary changes within a population, typically
involving changes in allele frequencies from one generation to the next.
• The causes of microevolution:
• Mutation :is the random change in an organism’s DNA sequence.
• Role in Microevolution: Mutations introduce new genetic variation into a
population by creating new alleles ,While most mutations are neutral or harmful,
some can be beneficial, providing new traits that may be advantageous for
survival or reproduction.
• Natural Selection: is the process by which individuals with traits better suited
to their environment tend to survive and reproduce more successfully than
others.
• Role in Microevolution: Natural selection drives microevolution by favoring
alleles that give a fitness advantage. Over time, beneficial alleles become more
common, while disadvantageous alleles decrease in frequency. This leads to
adaptations that help populations better survive in their environments.
Microevolution
• Genetic Drift :Genetic drift refers to random changes in
allele frequencies due to chance events, particularly in
small populations.
• Role in Microevolution: In smaller populations, random
events (such as natural disasters ) can cause certain alleles
to become more or less common purely by chance. Over
time, this can significantly alter the genetic structure of a
population.
• Bottleneck Effect: A sharp reduction in population size (due
to events like natural disasters) can reduce genetic
diversity and lead to the dominance of certain alleles.
• Founder Effect: When a small group of individuals starts a
new population, the genetic makeup of that population is
heavily influenced by the alleles carried by the founders.