Grade XII, Physics

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Prepared by Lila Bahadur Kunwar

kunwarlila@[Link]

LILA BAHADUR KUNWAR 1

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
1. Magnetic Flux
2. Faraday’s Experiments
3. Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
4. Lenz’s Law and Law of Conservation of Energy
5. Expression for Induced emf based on both laws
6. Methods of producing induced emf a) By changing Magnetic Field b) By changing
the Area of the Coil (Motional emf) c) By changing the Relative Orientation of the
coil with the Magnetic Field
7. Eddy Currents
8. Self Induction and Self Inductance
9. Mutual Induction and Mutual Inductance
[Link] stored in an inductor
11. Transformer
LILA BAHADUR KUNWAR 2
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
As we know that electric current produces magnetic field. Is reverse possible i.e.
Can magnetic field produce electric current?
Yes, it is found that currents were induced in closed coils when subjected to
changing magnetic fields.
The phenomenon in which electric current is generated by changing magnetic
fields is known as electromagnetic induction. The current so produced is known
as induced current.
If current is produced in the circuit, this must be due to some emf produced in
the circuit. This emf produced as a result of change in magnetic field is known
as induced emf.

The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction (EMI) is the basis of the working

of power generators, dynamos, transformers.

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Magnetic Flux (Φ):
Magnetic Flux through any surface is the number of magnetic lines of force passing
normally through that surface.
It can also be defined as the product of the area of the surface and the component
of the magnetic field normal to that surface.

dΦ = B . dA = [Link] n

dΦ = B dA cos θ B cos θ n
dA θ
Φ = B . A = B.A
B
Φ = B . A cos θ
Positive Flux:
Magnetic Flux is positive for 0° ≤ θ < 90° & 270° < θ ≤
360°
Flux is maximum when
Zero Flux: θ = 0° and is Φ = B . A
Magnetic Flux is zero for θ = 90° & θ = 270°

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Negative Flux:
 Φ = B A cos θ

Magnetic Flux across a coil can be changed by changing :

1) the strength of the magnetic field B
2) the area of cross section of the coil A
3) the orientation of the coil with magnetic field θ or
4) any of the combination of the above

* Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.

* SI unit of magnetic flux is weber or tesla-metre2 or ( wb or Tm2).

* CGS unit of magnetic flux is maxwell.
* 1 maxwell = 10-8 weber
* Magnetic flux (associated normally) per unit area is called Magnetic
Flux Density or Strength of Magnetic Field or Magnetic Induction (B).

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Faraday’s Experiment - 1:

S N N S

N S

G G

N S S N

S N

G G

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 S N

N S

Magnetic flux linked with the coil changes relative to the positions of the
coil and the magnet due to the magnetic lines of force cutting at different
angles at the same cross sectional area of the coil.

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LILA BAHADUR KUNWAR 8
Observe:
a. the relative motion between the coil and the magnet
[Link] induced polarities of magnetism in the coil
[Link] direction of current through the galvanometer and hence the deflection in the
galvanometer
[Link] the induced current (e.m.f) is available only as long as there is relative motion
between the coil and the magnet
Note:
a)coil can be moved by fixing the magnet
b)both the coil and magnet can be moved ( towards each other or away from each other)
i.e. there must be a relative velocity between them
c)magnetic flux linked with the coil changes relative to the positions of the coil and the
magnet
d)current and hence the deflection is large if the relative velocity between the coil and the
magnet and hence the rate of change of flux across the coil is more

LILA BAHADUR KUNWAR 9

Faraday’s Experiment - 2:

When the primary circuit is closed

N S S N
current grows from zero to maximum
value.
P S
During this period changing, current
induces changing magnetic flux
across the primary coil.
E K G
This changing magnetic flux is linked
across the secondary coil and induces
N S N S e.m.f (current) in the secondary coil.
Induced e.m.f (current) and hence
P S deflection in galvanometer lasts only
as long as the current in the primary
coil and hence the magnetic flux in the
E K G secondary coil change.

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When the primary circuit is open current decreases from
maximum value to zero.
During this period changing current induces changing magnetic
flux across the primary coil.
This changing magnetic flux is linked across the secondary coil
and induces current (e.m.f) in the secondary coil.
However, note that the direction of current in the secondary coil
is reversed and hence the deflection in the galvanometer is
opposite to the previous case.

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Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:
First Law:
Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a circuit,
an emf and hence a current is induced in the circuit. However, it lasts
only so long as the magnetic flux is changing.

Second Law:
The magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate
of change of magnetic flux linked with a circuit.

(where k is a constant and units are chosen such that k = 1)

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Direction of induced emf or current
The direction of induced emf or current can be determined by the following two ways:
(i)Lenz’s law
(ii)Fleming’s right hand rule.
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Lenz’s Law:
The direction of the induced emf or induced current in a coil is such
that it always opposes the cause (or change) that is producing it.
i.e. If the current is induced due to motion of the magnet, then the
induced current in the coil sets itself to stop the motion of the magnet.
If the current is induced due to change in current in the primary coil,
then induced current is such that it tends to stop the change.
Explanation:
N S S N
Motion Motion

S N LILA BAHADUR KUNWAR

S N 14
Lenz’s Law:
Consider a magnet with its N-pole moving towards a coil connected to a galvanometer
(G) as shown in fig (1). When the magnet is moved towards the coil, the emf induced
in the coil is such that the induced current flowing in the circuit sets up magnetic field
in the coil with N-pole at left and S-pole right end. As a result, the N-pole of the coil
magnet repels the N –pole of bar magnet and the approaching motion of the magnet is
opposed. In order to move the magnet further towards the coil, work is to be done
against the repulsive force. In this way, the induced emf in the coil opposed the cause
(the approaching motion of the magnet) which produces it.
Similarly, If the magnet with its N-pole pointing towards the coil is moved away from
the coil (in figure 2), the emf induced in the coil is such that the induced current
flowing in the circuit sets up magnetic field in the coil with S-pole at left end and N-
pole at right end. As a result, S-pole of the coil magnet attracts the N-pole of the bar
magnet and the receding motion of the magnet is opposed. In order to move the
magnet further away from the coil, work is to be done against the attractive force. In
this way, the induced emf is coil opposed the cause (the receding motion of the
magnet) which produces it.

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Lenz’s Law and Law of Conservation of Energy:

When the magnet is moved towards or away from a coil, the induced emf causes
current to flow in such a direction that the resulting magnetic field opposes the
approaching or receding motion of the magnet. To move the magnet further
towards or away from the coil, work is to be done against the opposing force.
The work thus done is stored in the coil as its electrical energy. Hence, an induced
emf is set up in the coil at the expense of the mechanical energy. Hence, Lenz’s
law is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.

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Lenz’s Law and Law of Conservation of Energy:
OR, According to Lenz’s law, the induced emf opposes the change that
produces it. It is this opposition against which we perform mechanical work in
causing the change in magnetic flux. Therefore, mechanical energy is
converted into electrical energy. Thus, Lenz’s law is in accordance with the
law of conservation of energy.
If, however, the reverse would happen (i.e. the induced emf does not oppose or aids
the change), then a little change in magnetic flux would produce an induced current
which would help the change of flux further thereby producing more current. The
increased emf would then cause further change of flux and it would further increase
the current and so on. This would create energy out of nothing which would violate
the law of conservation of energy.

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Expression for Induced emf based on both the laws:
E = - dΦ / dt
E = - (Φ2 – Φ1) / dt
And for ‘N’ no. of turns of the coil,
E = - N dΦ / dt
E = - N (Φ2 – Φ1) / dt
Expression for Induced current:
Note:
I = - dΦ / (R dt) Induced emf does not depend on
Expression for Charge: resistance of the circuit where as
the induced current and induced
charge depend on resistance.

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Magnetic flux can be changed by
[Link] changing Magnetic Field B:
[Link] changing the area of the coil A available in Magnetic Field [Link]
shrinking or stretching or changing the shape of coil
[Link] changing the orientation of the coil (θ) in Magnetic Field:
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1. By changing Magnetic Field B:
Magnetic flux Φ can be changed by changing the magnetic field B and
hence emf can be induced in the circuit (as done in Faraday’s
Experiments).

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2. By changing the area of the coil A available in Magnetic Field:
Magnetic flux Φ can be changed by changing the area of the loop A which is acted
upon by the magnetic field B and hence emf can be induced in the circuit.

B P’ P Q’ Q

v
l dA
I

S’ [Link] S R’ R
dΦ = [Link]
= [Link]
The loop PQRS is slided into uniform and perpendicular magnetic field.
The change (increase) in area of the coil under the influence of the field E = - dΦ / dt
is dA in time dt. This causes an increase in magnetic flux dΦ.
E = - Blv

The induced emf is due to motion of the loop and so it is called ‘motional emf’.
If the loop is pulled out of the magnetic field, then E = Blv
The direction of induced current is anticlockwise in the loop. i.e. P’S’R’Q’P’ by Fleming’s
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Right Hand Rule or Lenz’s Rule.
According Lenz’s Rule, the direction of induced current is such that it
opposes the cause of changing magnetic flux.
Here, the cause of changing magnetic flux is due to motion of the loop and
increase in area of the coil in the uniform magnetic field.
Therefore, this motion of the loop is to be opposed. So, the current is
setting itself such that by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, the conductor arm PS
experiences force to the right whereas the loop is trying to move to the
left.
Against this force, mechanical work is done which is converted into
electrical energy (induced current).
NOTE: If the loop is completely inside the boundary of magnetic field, then
there will not be any change in magnetic flux and so there will not be
induced current in the loop.
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Fleming’s Right Hand Rule:
If the central finger, fore finger and thumb of right hand are stretched
mutually perpendicular to each other and the fore finger points to
magnetic field, thumb points in the direction of motion (force), then
central finger points to the direction of induced current in the
conductor.
Magnetic Motion[Force(F)]
Field (B)

Electric
Current (I)

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Induced emf in a straight conductor moving in uniform magnetic field:
Consider a straight conductor PQ of length l moving at right angles to a uniform
magnetic field B with a velocity v as shown in figure.
Suppose the conductor moves through a small
P’ x P
distance x in time t. Then area swept by the
conductor is given by: Area swept (A) = l x B
v
And magnetic flux cut by the conductor is,
l
Φ = B x Area swept = B l x
From Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
the magnitude of induced emf is given by, Q’
Q
E = dΦ / dt

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Motional emf: Using principle of conservation of energy
P

B I

BIL F

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Motional emf: Using concept of magnetic Lorentz force:
++ P
B

v
-
l

--
Q

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3. By changing the orientation of the coil (θ) in Magnetic Field:
Magnetic flux Φ can be changed by changing the relative orientation of the loop (θ) with
the magnetic field B and hence emf can be induced in the circuit.

Φ = N B A cos θ
At time t, with angular velocity ω,
ω
θ = ωt (at t = 0, loop is assumed to be S
perpendicular to the magnetic field and
θ = 0°)
P θ B
Φ = N B A cos ωt
Differentiating w.r.t. t, n

dΦ / dt = - NBAω sin ωt
E = - dΦ / dt R
E = NBAω sin ωt
E = E0 sin ωt (where E0 = NBAω is the Q
maximum emf)
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The emf changes continuously in magnitude and E
periodically in direction w.r.t. time giving rise to
alternating emf. E0
0
If initial position of the coil is taken as 0°, i.e. normal to π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt

the coil is at 90° with the magnetic field, then θ T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T

becomes θ + π/2 or ωt + π/2 t

E = E0 cos ωt
E
So, alternating emf and consequently
alternating current can be expressed in sin E0
or cos function. 0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt

T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T

t

This method of inducing emf is the basic principle of generators.

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A.C. Generator/Dynamo:

Q R
S
S
R
Q
N
N
P S

R1 S P
R1
B1
B1
R2
B2 R2
B2
Load
Load

A.C. Generator or A.C. Dynamo or Alternator is a device which converts mechanical

energy into alternating current (electrical energy).
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An electrical machine used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
in the form of alternating current is know as A C generator/dynamo.

Principle:
A.C. Generator is based on the principle of Electromagnetic Induction. When a coil is
rotated about an axis perpendicular to direction of uniform magnetic field, an induced
emf is produced in it.

Construction:
(i) Field Magnet with poles N and S
(ii) Armature (Coil) PQRS
(iii)Slip Rings (R1 and R2)
(iv)Brushes (B1 and B2)
(v) Load

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Working:
Let the armature be rotated in such a way that the arm PQ goes down and RS comes up
from the plane of the diagram. Induced emf and hence current is set up in the coil. By
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule, the direction of the current is PQRSR2B2B1R1P.
After half the rotation of the coil, the arm PQ comes up and RS goes down into the plane
of the diagram. By Fleming’s Right Hand Rule, the direction of the current is
PR1B1B2R2SRQP.
If one way of current is taken +ve, then the reverse current is taken –ve.
Therefore the current is said to be alternating and the corresponding wave is sinusoidal.

Theory:

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At time t, with angular velocity ω,
θ = ωt (at t = 0, loop is assumed to be perpendicular to the magnetic field and θ = 0°)

Φ = N B A cos ωt ……………………(2)

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 ω
E0 R

0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt
Q θ B
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T
t n

If we plot a graph between time and induced emf S

then we obtained sinusoidal cycle as shown in
figure.
P

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 Q R R Q
N S

P S S P

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Eddy Currents or Foucault Currents:
The induced circulating (looping) currents produced in a solid metal due to change in
magnetic field (magnetic flux) in the metal are called eddy currents.
Applications of Eddy Currents: B
1. In induction furnace eddy currents are used
for melting iron ore, etc.
2. In speedometer eddy currents are used to
measure the instantaneous speed of the
vehicle.
Metallic Block Eddy Currents
3. In dead beat galvanometer eddy currents are
used to stop the damping of the coil in a
shorter interval.
4. In electric brakes of the train eddy currents are produced to stop the rotation of the axle
of the wheel.
5. In energy meters (watt – meter) eddy currents are used to measure the consumption of
electric energy.
6. In diathermy eddy currents are used for localised heating of tissues in human bodies.
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Self Induction:
Self Induction is the phenomenon of inducing emf in
the self coil due to change in current and hence the
K
change in magnetic flux in the coil. E
The induced emf opposes the growth or decay of As the key is on the current in the
current in the coil and hence delays the current tocoil starts increasing.
acquire the maximum value. Due to this the magnetic field and
Self induction is also called inertia of electricity as it
hence the flux linkage around the
opposes the growth or decay of current.
coil increases.
Self Inductance: It is found that As a result an induced emf is
Φ α I or Φ = LI developed in the coil.
(where L is the constant of proportionality and is And according to Lenz’s law, the
known as Self Inductance or co-efficient of self direction of induced emf (current)
induction) is such that it opposes the growth
of current in the coil.
This delays the current to acquire
the maximum value.
Similar, happens when key is
opened.
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Self Induction:

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SI unit of self inductance is henry (H).
Self inductance is said to be 1 henry when 1 A current in a coil links magnetic flux of 1
weber. or
Self inductance is said to be 1 henry when unit rate of change of current (1 A / s)
induces emf of 1 volt in the coil.
Self inductance of a solenoid:
A
Magnetic Field due to the solenoid is B = μ0nI
I l
Magnetic Flux linked across one turn of the coil is
Φ per turn = B A = μ0nIA = μ0NIA / l
Magnetic Flux linked across N turns of the coil is Energy in Inductor:
Small work done dW in establishing a current
Φ = μ0N2IA / l I in the coil in time dt is dW = - EI dt
dW = LI dI (since E = -L(dI / dt)
But, Φ = LI
So, L = μ0N2A / l = μ0n2Al I0

W = ∫ L I dI = ½ LI02
0
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LILA BAHADUR KUNWAR 40
VVI: Energy stored in an inductor/in the coil:
When the current in the inductor is varied, back emf/induced emf is developed across it.
Some work has to be done to overcome this back emf and to keep the current in the
inductor steady. This work done against the back emf is stored in the magnetic field of the
inductor (coil) as magnetic potential energy.

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 Note: Energy is stored in the
inductor in the form of magnetic
energy at the expense of energy of
source of emf
Note: In case of ac source, the
energy is stored in the inductor
from the source during one half
cycle but same amount of energy is
returned to the source during next
half cycle & hence, electric energy
LILA BAHADUR KUNWAR
stored in an inductor is zero. 42
Note:

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Mutual Induction:
Mutual Induction is the phenomenon of inducing emf in
the secondary coil due to change in current or
magnetic flux linked in the primary coil and hence the
change in magnetic flux in the secondary coil.

Mutual Inductance:
Φ21 α I1 or Φ21 = MI1 (where M is the constant of proportionality and is known as
If I1 = 1, then M= Φ Mutual Inductance or co-efficient of mutual induction)

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Mutual Induction:
SI unit of mutual inductance is henry (H).
Mutual inductance is said to be 1 henry when 1 A current in the primary coil links
magnetic flux of 1 weber across the secondary coil. or
Mutual inductance is said to be 1 henry when unit rate of change of current (1 A / s) in
primary coil induces emf of 1 volt in the secondary coil.

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Mutual inductance of two long co-axial solenoids:
Magnetic Field due to primary solenoid is
B1 = μ0n1I1
G
Magnetic Flux linked across one turn of the secondary solenoid
is S
A
Φ21 per turn = B1 A = μ0n1I1A = μ0N1I1A / l
P
Magnetic Flux linked across N turns of the secondary solenoid is I1 l

Φ21 = μ0N1N2I1A / l

But, Φ21 = M21I1

M21 = μ0N1N2A / l = μ0n1n2Al

For two long co-axial solenoids

Similarly, M12 = μ0Nof same length and cross-sectional area,
1N2A / l = μ0n1n2Al
the mutual inductance is same and leads to principle of reciprocity.
M = M12 = M21
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Additional Information:
1) If the two solenoids are wound on a magnetic core of relative permeability μr, then
M = μ0 μr N 1 N 2 A / l
2) If the solenoids S1 and S2 have no. of turns N1 and N2 of different radii r1 and r2 (r1 < r2),
then
M = μ0 μr N1N2 (πr12)/ l
3) Mutual inductance depends also on the relative placement of the solenoids.
4) Co-efficient of Coupling (K) between two coils having self-inductance L 1 and L2 and
mutual inductance M is
K = M / (√L1L2) Generally, K < 1
5) If L1 and L2 are in series, then L = L1 + L2
6) If L1 and L2 are in parallel, then (1/L) = (1/L1) + (1/L2)

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Transformer:
It is a device which converts lower alternating voltage at higher current into higher
alternating voltage at lower current and vice-versa.
Principle:
Transformer is based on Mutual Induction.
When the change in current or flux linkage
takes place in one coil, then induced emf is
produced in the other [Link]. P
S Load
Theory:
For an ideal transformer,
EP = - NP dΦ / dt
Output Power = Input Power
ES = - NS dΦ / dt
ESIS = EPIP
ES / EP = NS / NP = K Efficiency (η):
ES / EP = IP / IS
(where K is called η = ESIS / EPIP
Transformation Ratio ES / EP = IP / IS = NS / NP
or Turns Ratio) For an ideal
transformer η
is 100%
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Types of transformer:
(1)Step-up Transformer
(2)Step- down Transformer

P S Load
P S

Load

NS > NP i.e. K > 1

NS < NP i.e. K < 1
ES > EP & IS < IP
ES < EP & IS > IP
Figure: Step - up Transformer Figure: Step - down
Transformer:

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 Energy Losses in a Transformer:

1. Copper Loss: Heat is produced due to the resistance of the copper windings of Primary
and Secondary coils when current flows through them.
This can be avoided by using thick wires for winding.
2. Flux Loss: In actual transformer coupling between Primary and Secondary coil is not
perfect. So, a certain amount of magnetic flux is wasted.
Linking can be maximized by winding the coils over one another.
3. Iron Losses:
a) Eddy Currents Losses:
When a changing magnetic flux is linked with the iron core, eddy currents are set up
which in turn produce heat and energy is wasted.
Eddy currents are reduced by using laminated core instead of a solid iron block
because in laminated core the eddy currents are confined with in the lamination and
they do not get added up to produce larger current. In other words their paths are
broken instead of continuous ones.

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Energy Losses in a Transformer:

b) Hysteresis Loss:
When alternating current is
passed, the iron core is
magnetized and demagnetized
repeatedly over the cycles and
some energy is being lost in the
process. Laminated Core
Solid Core
This can be minimized by using suitable material with thin hysteresis loop.

4. Losses due to vibration of core: Some electrical energy is lost in the form of
mechanical energy due to vibration of the core and humming noise due to
magnetostriction effect.

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 THANK YOU:
HAPPY READING

LILA BAHADUR KUNWAR 52