GOOD MORNING

Can you guess it ?

PROGRAMMED

INSTRUCTION
Can you guess it
SELF DIRECTED
LEARNING
 1.
PROGRAMMED

INSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION

Programmed instruction is a new innovation which is the result of

the experimental study of learning process in psychological laboratory. It is
an individualized method in which the variety of sources like programmed
text book, teaching machine, computers with or without the help of a
teacher are used. Programmed instruction is a self-instruction whereby
learner proceeds through instructional materials in short steps at his own
pace immediate knowledge of the correctness of his answers.
MEANING

The instructions provided by teaching machine or programmed

textbook are referred to as programmed instructions of programmed
learning.
DEFINITION OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

‘Programmed instruction is a planned sequence of experiences, leading to

proficiency, in terms of stimulus-response relationship that have proven to
be effective.’
-JE Espich and Bill Williams.

‘Programmed instruction is a method of designing a reproducible sequence

of instructional events to produce a measurable consistent effect on
behaviour of each and every acceptable student.
–Susan Markle, 1969.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

➤ The is broken into small step and each step is presented in several
sentences, each step is called a frame.

➤ The frames are arranged sequentially.

➤ Most of the frames require that the learner makes some kind of responses-
an answer to a question, an activity to demonstrate the understanding of the
material.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

➤ The student is provided with immediate confirmation of the right answers

(i.e.) the learner is provided immediate reinforcement.

➤ In case he is correct, his response is reinforced and if he is wrong, he may

correct himself by receiving the correct answer.

➤ It is the interaction between the learner and learning material which is

emphasized in programmed learning. Here, the learner is active and is
motivated to learn and respond.
PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

1. SMALL STEPS: The subject matter is broken down into a sequence of

small steps. A student can take a step at a time. He has to read a small step
by being active.

2. ACTIVE RESPONDING: A student learns better if he actively participates

in the lesson and learns best if he is actively responding while learning.

3. IMMEDIATE CONFIRMATION: A student learns best if he confirms his

response immediately. The confirmation provides the reinforcement to the
learner.
PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

4. SELF PACING: In programmed learning each student proceeds at his own

rate or pace. Some students naturally learn more rapidly or more slowly than
others. One learns most effectively, if he learns at his own pace. This
principle is based on individual differences in the process of teaching and
learning.

5. STUDENT TESTING/ EVALUATION: It helps the students to learn and

grasp the material. Given in each frame. The aim of this arrangement is not
to test the student but to improve the quality of programmed materials
through checking the number of errors at each step.
TYPES OF PROGRAMMING

1. LINEAR PROGRAMMING: Linear programming is strictly based upon a

learning theory of conditioning. The primary objective is to bring the
behaviour of the learner under the control of variety of stimuli through the
use of easy steps, one at a time. Each step requires the student to
participate actively by making a response.

Fra
me - F-2 F–3 F–4 F–5 F-n
1

Terminal
Entry Behaviour Path of Learning
Behaviour
EXAMPLE OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING
TYPES OF PROGRAMMING

Types of Linear Programme:

A. Construct response.
B. Multiple choice questions.
C. Conventional chaining.
D. Skip linear.
E. Criterion frames.
TYPES OF PROGRAMMING

2. BRANCHING PROGRAMMING: Branching programming was developed

by Norman. A. Crowder, hence it is also known as crowderian
programme(1954). Information more when compared to linear programming
followed by multiple choice type question. Choose correct answer motivated
to next frame along with main path. If answer is wrong, leads to remedial
frame. Do not follow frame route, rather route depends on the response of
learner.

Types of Branching Programming:

A. Backward Branching.
B. Forward Branching. responses.
EXAMPLE OF BRANCHING PROGRAMMING
EXAMPLE OF BRANCHING PROGRAMMING
TYPES OF PROGRAMMING

3. MATHEMATIC PROGRAMMING:
◦ It was developed by T. F. Gillbert in 1962.
◦ Mathematic programming is a type of programmed instruction that uses
reinforcement theory to help learners master a subject.
◦ It is based on the idea that learning is a process of connecting ideas.
◦ It focuses on helping learners master the subject matter
TYPES OF PROGRAMMING

4. COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMING:

It is a method of instruction that uses computers to present information, and
is often used in programmed instruction:
◦ CAI can be interactive, and use animation, sound, and demonstrations to
illustrate concepts. Students can work at their own pace, and receive
immediate feedback on their answers.
◦ CAI aims to provide individualized instruction that meets the needs of each
student.
TYPES OF PROGRAMMING

5. ADJUNCT PROGRAMMING:
Sidney. L. Pressy of Ohio university, America developed, adjunct
programming. He named it as ‘Adjunct Auto Instruction’.
◦ A large step text followed by test items. The information may run to pages.
After reading the information, the learner answers a series of questions.
Each answer is checked with correct answer given at the end. If the learner
is wrong then he is told which page (and line) he should read to get the
correct answer.
TYPES OF PROGRAMMING

◦ The questions need not necessarily cover all the points dealt within the
passage read. The questions are meant to clarify the points and clear the
misconceptions. They help the learner to determine whether he understood
or not, he has mastered the content, he needs to revise the topic or needs
any additional help from the teacher.
STEPS OF PREPARING PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTIONS

The certain common steps to be followed are the three main phases:
[Link] PHASE:
It involves,
➤ Viewing the programme on any topic.
➤ Deciding to prepare a programme.
➤ Selecting a topic.
➤ Preparing a correct outline.
➤ Specification of objectives in behavioural terms.
STEPS OF PREPARING PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTIONS

➤ Specification (assumptions about learner).

➤ Entering behaviour-Prerequisite skills.
➤ Preparation of pre-test.
➤ Terminal behaviour-expected performance of the learner at the end of the
course.
➤ Preparation of post-test, i.e. Preferably criterion test.
STEPS OF PREPARING PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTIONS

2. WRITING PHASE:
It involves,
➤ Present a material in frames.
➤ Active responding.
➤ Confirmation of responses.
➤ Judicious use of prompts and prime.
➤ Careful sequencing of frames.
➤ Selection of paradigm of programme.
STEPS OF PREPARING PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTIONS

3. VALIDATION PHASE:
It involves,
➤ Try-out and revision.
➤ Individual try-out.
➤ Small group try-out.
➤ Master validation.
► Editing, reviewing, revising modifying the program for final
preparation based on the fruits of try-out.
➤ Program writing.
ADVANTAGES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

Enables student to work at his own pace.

It helps to develop high efficiency.
It facilitates self-evaluation.
It gives individual instructions.
The student is actively involved.
◦ The student proceeds at its own pace.
ADVANTAGES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

The student is provided with immediate knowledge of results.

The physical presence of the teacher is not required.
It permits mass teaching.
It can to high availability.
It facilitates decision taking in solution of complex problems.
◦ It decreases risk for patients and society.
DISADVANTAGES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

Require experts on programmed instruction.

Preparation is difficult and time-consuming.
Material is not available.
Necessitates special educational competence.
It costs, high additional investment cost in teacher’s time and money.
◦ There will be no group dynamics.
APPLICATION OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION IN
EDUCATION

◦ For Regular Instruction: The teacher can use programmed material regular
instruction in any subject in which the program- med material is available.
The teacher may use it in conjunction with methods. Ex: Text-books, T.V.
Films, Lectures, Discussion. Programmed Instruction can be used to teach a
selected unit in a course or entire course of a subject.
◦ Enrichment of Curriculum.
◦ Remedial Instruction: It can reduce the percentage of failure in Maths and
science.
◦ Applied right from pre-primary school to university education.
APPLICATION OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION IN
EDUCATION

◦ Industrial Application: Programmed Instruction is used in industry because:

◦
◦ -Lack of qualified instructor and lack of sufficient time to the instructor.
◦ -Assembling employees into classes is a problem.
-Employees work in shifts.
-Employees work in a scattered location.
-Heavy costs of staff and maintaining of the training centre
APPLICATION OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION IN
EDUCATION

Correspondence courses: Successful medium of educating the

masses as well as those who want to continue their education.
To improve agricultural practices for agriculturalists.
To improve sanitary habits for the public.
Modification of deviant behaviour.
◦ Vocational training and psychotherapy training.
 2. SELF
DIRECTED
LEARNING
INTRODUCTION

Self activity as the basic principle of learning is universal in its

application. An individual can learn only through her own reactions to
situations. There can be no learning where there has been no self activity.
This principle of self activity may be stated simply: A student learns through
her own activities.
Self directed learning is a process in which individuals take the
initiative, with or without the help of to diagnose their learning goals, identify
resources for learning, select and implement learning strategies, and
evaluate learning outcomes.
DEFINITION OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

Self directed learning is a “process in which individuals take initiative, with

or without the help of others, in diagnosing their own learning needs,
formulating goals, identifying human and material resources for learning,
choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies and evaluating
learning outcomes.”
-Malcolm Knowles, 1975.

Self directed learning is a “process in which the learner initiating learning

making decisions about what and how to learn self in order to achieve a
particular task.”
- Neema Baskar.
PURPOSES OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

➤ To plan and participate in one’s own learning activities.

➤ To develop the capacity of learning and thinking of learner.
➤ To develop the sense of independence by enhancing emancipatory
learning.
➤ To develop the problem-solving approaches.
➤ To develop time management skills.
➤ To develop decision making skills.
PROCESS OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

It involves a continual process of:

1. Self-motivation:
Motivation affects the learning strategies and cognitive processes an
individual employs (Dweck & Elliott, 1983). It increases the likelihood that
people will pay attention to something, study and practice it, and try to learn
it in a meaningful fashion. It also increases the likelihood that hey will seek
help when they encounter difficulty.
◦ It directs an individual toward certain goals and fulfil their objectives.
CONTINUE…

2. Self-management:

Establishes clear goals.

Thoroughly gathers information.
Persistently stays with a task.
Uses a systematic approach to problem solving, organizational planning, and
decision- making.
Uses articulate, thoughtful communication.
◦ Continuous process.
CONTINUE…

3. Self-monitoring:

Consideration of the ramifications of thoughts, plans, decisions, and actions.

Metacognition the process of consciously monitoring one’s own thinking.
Self-reflection process of reflecting on one’s own thinking patterns, plans,
decisions, and actions.
◦ Self-evaluation.
CONTINUE…

4. Self-modification:

Revises strategies and implies a great effort to maximize his/her

effectiveness based on feedback.
◦ Changes in one’s behaviour based on the data gathered during self-
monitoring and on feedback received from others.
SELF DIRECTED LEARNING MODEL

To control one’s
To enter learning task,
behaviour & resources-
take responsibility,
Self- Self- to think independently,
plan own learning
Motivation Management solve problems & make
outcomes & activities.
decisions.

To change behaviour To continuously monitor

based on self Self- Self- one’s own thinking &
monitoring & on Modification Monitoring actions through self
feedbacks received reflection/ evaluation &
from others. metacognition.
STEPS OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

1. Deciding what detailed knowledge and skill to learn.

2. Deciding the specific activities, methods, resources, or equipment for
learning.
3. Deciding where to learn.
4. Setting specific deadlines or intermediate targets.
5. Deciding when to begin a learning episode.
6. Deciding the pace at which to proceed during a learning episode.
STEPS OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

7. Estimating the current level of knowledge and skill and progress in gaining
the desired knowledge and skill.
8. Detecting any factor that has been backing or hindering learning.
9. Obtaining the desired resources equipment.
10. Preparing or adapting a room..
11. Saving or obtain the money necessary for the use of certain human or
nonhuman resources.
12. Finding time for the learning, and
13. Taking certain steps to increase the motivation for learning.
SKILLS FOR AN EFFECTIVE DIRECTED LEARNING

[Link] SETTING SKILLS:

Here the individual identifies the problem rather than developing a cognitive
ability to engage in problem identification and solving.
◦ They have a good observation skills and ability to determine what is
important in their learning environment.
SKILLS FOR AN EFFECTIVE DIRECTED LEARNING

[Link] SKILLS:

Observing- the ability to see and understand.

Seeing and translating- the ability to translate visual information to
notes and records.
Reading –the ability to read, translate and compared written material.
◦ Listing –the ability to receive and process aural information and
related it is existing information schemes.
SKILLS FOR AN EFFECTIVE DIRECTED LEARNING

[Link] MAKING SKILLS:

This denotes the learner’s thinking ability.

◦ The learner must develop the ability to identify, prioritize, select validate,
evaluate and interpret information obtained through processing.
SKILLS FOR AN EFFECTIVE DIRECTED LEARNING

[Link] AWARENESS:

The successful self-directed learner has the ability to be aware self.

It enables the individuals to be aware of their learning processes their
weakness and strengths to know of their ability to use different in their
environment.
To know when, how and what is distracting in their environment.
◦ To know when they need assistance, and to have a realistic perception of
their ability to achieve learning goal.
SKILLS FOR AN EFFECTIVE DIRECTED LEARNING

[Link] COMPETENCE:

Here some personal observation indicates that people skilled in certain areas
tend to emphasize those while avoiding topics and activities in areas in
which they are less competent.
◦ For example, one who knows the own language may learn another
language based on first language.
SKILLS FOR AN EFFECTIVE DIRECTED LEARNING

[Link] CONGNITIVE SKILLS: Other cognitive skills appear to be

associated with self directed learning success. They are-

Sensory- including ability to select, identify and classify information.

Memory- working memory is important in the processing of information
before it is assimilated into existing long-term memory.
◦ Elaboration-includes the ability to taken item from working memory and
process it by imaging, deducing, discriminating generalizing etc.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF SELF DIRECTED LEARNING

The learner should be enthusiastic.

The materials should be available and appropriate.
Guide or advisor should be available if needed.
Learner be physically and mentally healthy.
Learner should be able to select the tools and methods that they use, the
technologies that could be used to support the approach are largely
dependent on the students.
◦ Working collaboratively with others (people and resources).
ADVANTAGES OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

➤ Self-directed learning allows learners to be more effective learners and

social beings.
➤ It enhances the ability to think and learn.
➤ It promotes emancipatory learning process.
➤ Self-directed learners are curious and willing to try new things.
➤ They can view problems as challenges, desire change, and enjoy learning.
➤ Self-directed learners are motivated and persistent, independent, self-
disciplined, self- confident and goal oriented.
ADVANTAGES OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

➤ Self-directed learning encourages students to develop their own rules and

leadership patterns.
➤ It helps to develop time management skills.
➤ It helps to identify the requirements for a problem-solving process.
➤ It increases self esteem.
➤ Helps in decision making.
DISADVANTAGES OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

➤ Research have proved that some adults are unable to engage in self
directed learning because they lack independence, confidence or resources.
➤ Possible for frequent error and sometimes it misguides the student how to
learn.
➤ Self directed learning needs to be combined with other learning methods
for content to be fully learned.
➤ Self directed learning is quite time consuming.
➤ It lacks team spirit and It promotes self awareness.
APPLICATION OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING IN NURSING
EDUCATION

◦ Individual projects: - A student undertake research projects individually

by the guidance of the teacher, the projects are completed. The projects
are where the students take up and in varied settings.
◦ Case studies: - Case study as a method of teaching probably has been
used in the teaching of nursing more extensively and for longer time than
any other method. The case study describes the life history of an individual
or all of the factors which affect a situation. It tries to give as much breadth
and depth of an individual in situation.
APPLICATION OF THEORIES AND ALLIED SCIENCES

[Link] INSTRUCTION:
a) Application of Theory: Behavioural Learning Theory
◦ Application: Instruction often relies on principles of behavioural learning,
where learners receive immediate feedback and reinforcement. This aligns
with theories by B.F. Skinner, emphasizing the importance of rewards in the
learning process.
◦ Implementation: Use step-by-step modules that provide quizzes or
practical scenarios after each section, reinforcing knowledge through
immediate feedback.
APPLICATION OF THEORIES AND ALLIED SCIENCES

B) Application of Allied Science: Psychology

◦ Application: Understanding learning theories and cognitive processes.
◦ Implementation: Design instructional modules that incorporate principles of
reinforcement, feedback, and cognitive load theory. Use quizzes and
immediate feedback to enhance retention and motivation.
SUMMARY

We learned about the Programmed instruction and Self-directed

learning. In Programmed instruction, we discussed what was programmed
instructions, it’s meaning, definition, characteristics, principles, types, steps,
advantages, disadvantages, application in education and conclusion. In Self
directed learning, we discussed about its introduction, definition, purposes,
processes, model, steps, skills, selection criteria, advantages,
disadvantages, application in education and conclusion.
CONCLUSION

Therefore, SDL is a process in which individuals take the initiative,

without the help of others. Purposes are to boost up the critical thinking and
learning and learn permanently. It has more advantages than disadvantages.
As everything is controversial, it is the deep and permanent method of
learning.
JOURNAL

[Link]-based programmed instruction did not improve the knowledge

retention of medication instructions of individuals with type 2 diabetes
mellitus.

Jorge G Ruiz, Allen D Andrade, Ramanakumar Anam, Miriam Lisigurski,

Chandana Karanam, Joseph Sharit.
JOURNAL

ABSTRACT:
Purpose:
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether
computer-based programmed instruction (CPI) with a dynamic
avatar (DA) improves retention of medication information better
than text (controls) or better than CPI with text (T-CPI), CPI with
voice (V-CPI), or CPI with static avatar with text (SA-CPI).
JOURNAL

Method:
Participants with type 2 diabetes mellitus were enrolled in a
randomized controlled trial comparing TDS with CPI in 4 conditions
(T-CPI, V-CPI, SA-CPI, and DA-CPI). CPI sequentially. Delivers
segmented information in text or voice followed by a multiple-
choice question. Immediately after the user selects an option, CPI
delivers elaborated feedback. Satisfaction was measured
immediately after the interventions, and medication knowledge was
measured at 2 weeks.
JOURNAL

Result:
One-hundred fifty individuals (30 per group) with a mean age 62
years (standard deviation [SD] 7.99 years) participated. There were
no baseline differences in race, body mass index, education, and
health literacy. Medication knowledge retention at 2 weeks was not
significantly different between the groups, df(4), F = 0.17 P = 0.95
TDS, mean = SD 5.11; T-CPI, mean = 25.07, SD = 4.98 V-CPI, mean = 25.77,
SD = 4.89 SA-CPI, mean = 25.83, SD = 5.31 and DA-CPI, mean = 24.93, SD
= 6.251 Satisfaction scores were significantly lower for TDS, df(4), F = 3.11 P
= 0.01
JOURNAL

Conclusion:

CPI did not improve medication knowledge retention at 2 weeks. CPI led to
higher patient satisfaction compared with controls.
JOURNAL

2. Self-directed learning assessment practices in undergraduate health

professions education: A systematic review.
Tracey A.H. Taylor, Kyeorda Kemp, Misa Mi, and Sarah Lerchenfeldt.

ABSTRACT:
Purpose:
The goal of this systematic review was to examine self-directed
learning (SDL) assessment practices in undergraduate health
professions education.
JOURNAL

Method:
Seven electronic databases were searched (PubMed, Embase,
PsycINFO, ERIC, CINAHL,Scopus and Web of Science) to retrieve English-
language articles published between 2015 and July of 2022, investigating
assessment of SDL learning outcomes. Extracted data included the sample
size, field of study, study design, SDL activity type, SDL assessment method,
number of SDL assessments used, study quality, number of SDL components
present utilising the framework the authors developed, and SDL activity
outcomes. We also assessed relationships between SDL assessment method
and number of SDL components, study quality, field of study, and study
outcomes.
JOURNAL

Result:
Of the 141 studies included, the majority of study participants were
medical (51.8%) or nursing (34.8%) students. The most common SDL
assessment method used was internally developed perception surveys
(49.6%). When evaluating outcomes for SDL activities, most studies
reported positive or mixed/neutral outcome (58.2% and 34.8%,
respectively). There was a statistically significant relationship between
both number and type of assessments used, study quality, with
knowledge assessments (median-IQR 11.5) being associated with higher
study quality (p < 0.001). Less than half (48.9%) of the studies used
more than one assessment method to evaluate the effectiveness of SDL
activities. Having more than one assessment (mean 9.49) was
associated with higher quality study (p<0.001).
JOURNAL

Conclusion:

The of our review suggest that SDL assessment practices within

undergraduate health professions education vary greatly, as
different aspects of SDL were leveraged and by diverse groups of
learners to meet different learning needs and professional
accreditation requirements. Evidence-based best practices for the
assessment of SDL across undergraduate healthcare professions
education should include the use of multiple assessments, with
direct and indirect measures, to more accurately assess student
performance.
REFERENCES

BOOK REFERENCE:
[Link].J.K. Comprehensive Textbook of Nursing Education, New
Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers; 2017.p. 103-9.
2. Neeraja. K.P. Nursing Education, New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical
Publishers;2009.p.267-75.
[Link].B.T. Nursing Education, 2 edition, New Delhi: Jaypee
Brothers Medical Publishers; 2009, p.398-9,514-6.
[Link].R. Nursing Education Principles and Concepts. New Delhi: Jaypee
Brothers Medical Publishers; 2013.p. 189-14.
REFERENCES

JOURNAL REFERENCE:
[Link].J.G., Andrade.A.D., Anam.R., Lisigurski.M., Karanam.C., Sharit.J.
(2014). Computer-based programmed instruction did not improve the
knowledge retention of medication instructions of individuals with type 2
diabetes mellitus: PubMed, 40(1):77- 88.
2. Taylor. T.A.H., Kemp.K., Mi.M., Self-directed learning assessment practices
in undergraduate health professions education: A systematic review: Med
Educ Online, 28(1):2189553.

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