Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Stress and Its Effects
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
The Nature of Stress
• Stress is “any circumstances that threaten, or
are perceived to threaten, one’s well-being and
thereby tax one’s ability to cope”.
• Stress has several characteristics:
1. Stress is a common, everyday event.
• Both major and minor problems can be
stressful.
• Even daily “hassles” can have negative
effects on our well-being.
• Stressful events have a cumulative
impact.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
The Nature of Stress (cont.)
2. Stress is subjective. Not everyone feels the
same degree of stress from the same event.
• The difference may depend on how we
appraise events.
• We first make a “primary appraisal”, or
initial evaluation of the relevance, level of
threat, and degree of stress the event
brings.
• If viewed as stressful, we make a
“secondary appraisal”, or an evaluation
of our ability to cope.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
The Nature of Stress (cont.)
3. Stress is embedded in the environment.
• “Ambient” stress refers to chronic negative
environmental conditions, such as noise in
the workplace.
4. Stress may be influenced by culture.
• Culture may affect which types of stress
we experience.
• Cultural change is a major source of
stress in most cultures.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
The Nature of Stress (cont.)
5. Stress may be self-imposed.
• Often, we make choices that create
stress.
– (e.g. taking extra classes to finish a
degree early.)
– (e.g. taking on extra work to get a
promotion.)
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Major Types of Stress
• There are two basic categories of stress:
1. Acute stressors – threatening events with
short durations and clear endpoints.
• (e.g. evacuating for a hurricane)
• (e.g. studying for finals)
2. Chronic stressors – threatening events with
long durations and no apparent endpoint.
• (e.g. living with a serious medical
condition)
• (e.g. living in poverty)
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Major Types of Stress (cont.)
• There four major types of stress:
1. Frustration – situations in which pursuit of
a goal is thwarted.
2. Conflict – deciding between two or more
incompatible goals or behavior.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Major Types of Stress (cont.)
– Conflicts come in three types (see Fig. 3.3):
• Approach – approach – must make a
choice between two attractive goals.
• Avoidance – avoidance – must make a
choice between two unattractive goals.
• Approach – avoidance – must choose
whether or not to pursue ONE goal, which
has both pros and cons.
– This conflict causes the greatest stress.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Figure 3.3
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Major Types of Stress (cont.)
[Link]
– Holmes and Rahe believe both positive and
negative life changes are associated with
physical illness.
– They developed the Social Readjustment
Rating Scale (SRRS) to assess risk due to life
changes.
[Link] (see Fig. 3.6)
– Two types of pressure are important:
• Pressure to perform
• Pressure to conform
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Figure 3.6
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Responding to Stress
• Stress responses occur at three levels:
1. Emotional responses
2. Physiological responses
3. Behavioral responses
• Emotional responses are usually negative
and fall into three categories:
1. Annoyance, anger, and rage
2. Apprehension, anxiety, and fear
3. Dejection, sadness, and grief
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Responding to Stress (cont.)
– However, stress can prompt positive
emotional responses which in turn:
• Increase creativity, flexibility in problem
solving, and
• Enhance immune system functioning,
increase valuable social support and
promote proactive coping.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Responding to Stress (cont.)
– Strong emotions may hamper or enhance
our ability to cope with stress, depending on
our level of arousal and the task complexity.
– The “Inverted U hypothesis” predicts that:
• for low complexity tasks, a high level of
arousal is best;
• for medium complexity tasks, a medium
level of arousal is best; and
• for high complexity tasks, a low level of
arousal is best.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Responding to Stress (cont.)
• Physiological responses.
– The “fight-flight” response is a
physiological response to the threat that
mobilizes the organism for attacking (fight)
or fleeing (flight) an enemy.
– It occurs in the Autonomic Nervous System
(ANS) which is made up of the nerves that
connect to the heart, blood vessels,
smooth muscles, and glands.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Responding to Stress (cont.)
– The ANS is broken into two divisions (see
Fig. 3.9):
• Sympathetic division – mobilizes energy
during emergencies, engages the “fight-
flight” response.
• Parasympathetic division – conserves
energy, has calming effect on body.
– Unfortunately, the fight-flight response
is not well suited for coping with
modern threats.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Figure 3.10
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Responding to Stress (cont.)
– Hans Seyle’s “General Adaptation
Syndrome” is a three-phase model of the
body’s reaction to chronic stress (see Fig.
3.10).
[Link] phase – initial response to threat,
fight-flight response engages.
[Link] phase – if threat continues,
physiological changes stabilize, coping
begins.
[Link] phase – if threat continues too
long, body’s resources are depleted,
leading to physical exhaustion and illness.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Figure 3.11
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Responding to Stress (cont.)
– Two Brain-Body Pathways control our
physiological responses to stress (see Fig.
3.12):
[Link] Catecholamine Pathway –
hypothalamus activates sympathetic
system; adrenal glands release
catecholamines that mobilize the body for
action.
[Link] Corticosteroid Pathway –
hypothalamus signals pituitary gland to
secrete ACTH; adrenal cortex to release
corticosteroids that increase energy.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Figure 3.13
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Responding to Stress (cont.)
• Behavioral Responses to stress usually
refer to coping, or active efforts to master,
reduce, or tolerate the demands created by
stress.
– Coping response may be either:
• Healthy (e.g., actively trying to solve
problem by asking for help or generating
solutions) or
• Unhealthy (e.g., ignoring problem,
indulging in alcohol or excessive eating).
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
The Potential Effects of Stress
• Impaired task performance.
– Stress can cause people to “freeze up”, or
“crack under pressure”.
– Elevated self-consciousness can disrupt
attention to task.
• Disruption of cognitive function.
– Increased tendency to jump to conclusions.
– Decreased ability to carefully review options.
– Decreased memory function.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
The Potential Effects of Stress (cont.)
• Burnout – physical and emotional exhaustion,
cynicism and lowered sense of self-efficacy
that is attributable to work-related stress.
– Factors in workplace that promote burnout
include lack of control over responsibilities,
work overload, and lack of recognition.
– Burnout can result in increased
absenteeism, reduced productivity and risk
of illness.
– See Figure 3.13 for complete model.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Figure 3.14
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
The Potential Effects of Stress (cont.)
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – is an
enduring psychological disturbance attributed to
the experience of a major traumatic event.
– Symptoms include:
• Re-experiencing trauma via nightmares,
flashbacks.
• Emotional numbing, alienation, problems in
social relations.
• Elevated arousal, anxiety, and guilt.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
The Potential Effects of Stress (cont.)
– Also associated with increase substance
abuse, depression, suicide attempts & physical
illness.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
The Potential Effects of Stress (cont.)
• Psychological problems and disorders.
– Stress may contribute to:
• Poor academic performance;
• Insomnia and other sleep disturbances;
• Sexual difficulties; and
• Substance abuse.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
The Potential Effects of Stress (cont.)
• Physical illness.
– “Psychosomatic” diseases are genuine
physical ailments thought to be caused by
stress.
– Common psychosomatic diseases include:
• High blood pressure
• Peptic ulcers
• Asthma
• Eczema and hives
• Migraine and tension headaches
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Health and Stress
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
The Potential Effects of Stress (cont.)
• Positive Effects: There are at least three
ways that stress can have positive effects.
– It satisfies need for stimulation and
challenge;
– It can promote personal growth or self-
improvement; and
– It can inoculate us against future stress.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Factors Influencing Stress Tolerance
• Some people withstand stress better than
others.
• There are many moderator variables that may
reduce the impact of stress on physical and
mental health. They include:
– Social support – aid by members of our social
network.
– Hardiness – “hardy” people are highly
committed, have a sense of control, and
embrace challenge.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Factors Influencing Stress Tolerance (cont.)
– Optimism – general tendency to expect good
outcomes.
• Individuals with a “pessimistic explanatory
style” blame themselves for failures.
• Those with an “optimistic explanatory style”
attribute setbacks to temporary situational
factors.
– Optimists are more likely to use effective
coping methods and are more likely to
seek social support.
– Optimism also linked with better health
and longevity.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Factors Influencing Stress Tolerance (cont.)
– Conscientiousness – tendency to be diligent,
punctual and dependable.
– Conscientiousness is also linked with
longevity, but it is unclear why.
• In summary, many mediating variables interact to
determine how well an individual will respond to
stress (see Figure 3.15).
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Figure 3.16
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Application: Monitoring Your Stress
• Although commonly used, the SRRS has been
criticized on the following grounds:
– It may measure desirability of events more
than life changes per se.
– It ignores subjective perception of how
stressful various events are.
– Many items are ambiguous.
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Application: Monitoring Your Stress (cont.)
– It does not sample from the domain of
stressful events very thoroughly.
– Correlations between SRRS scores and
health outcomes may be inflated because
they are both attributable to neuroticism.
• The Life Experiences Survey (LES) is an
alternative tool that aims to address these
problems (see Figure 3.18).
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Figure 3.16
Psychology Applied to Modern Life, Eighth Edition, Weiten and Lloyd
Chapter 3
Application: Monitoring Your Stress (cont.)
• Individuals should exercise caution in using the
LES, however, and keep in mind that:
– The strength of association between stress
and illness is modest.
– Stress is only one of many variables that
affects vulnerability to illness.
• Finally, you can always use what you have
learned to manage stress better!