Slides Prepared by

JOHN S. LOUCKS
St. Edward’s University

© 2003 Thomson/South-Western 1
 Chapter 1
Data and Statistics
 Applications in Business and Economics
 Data
 Data Sources
 Descriptive Statistics
 Statistical Inference

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 Applications in
Business and Economics
 Accounting
Public accounting firms use statistical sampling
procedures when conducting audits for their
clients.
 Finance
Financial analysts use a variety of statistical
information, including price-earnings ratios and
dividend yields, to guide their investment
recommendations.
 Marketing
Electronic point-of-sale scanners at retail checkout
counters are being used to collect data for a
variety of marketing research applications.

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 Applications in
Business and Economics
 Production
A variety of statistical quality control charts
are used to monitor the output of a production
process.
 Economics
Economists use statistical information in
making forecasts about the future of the
economy or some aspect of it.

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 Data

 Elements, Variables, and Observations

 Scales of Measurement
 Qualitative and Quantitative Data
 Cross-Sectional and Time Series Data

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 Data and Data Sets

 Data are the facts and figures that are

collected, summarized, analyzed, and
interpreted.
 The data collected in a particular study are
referred to as the data set.

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 Elements, Variables, and Observations

 The elements are the entities on which data

are collected.
 A variable is a characteristic of interest for the
elements.
 The set of measurements collected for a
particular element is called an observation.
 The total number of data values in a data set
is the number of elements multiplied by the
number of variables.

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 Data, Data Sets,
Elements, Variables, and Observations
Observatio
Variable n
s Stock Annual
Earn/
Company Exchange Sales($M) Sh.
($)
Dataram AMEX 73.10 0.86
EnergySouth OTC 74.00 1.67
Keystone NYSE 365.70
0.86
LandCare
Element NYSE 111.40
Data Set Datum
0.33 s
© 2003Psychemedics AMEX 17.60 0.13
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 Scales of Measurement

 Scales of measurement include:

• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio
 The scale determines the amount of
information contained in the data.
 The scale indicates the data summarization
and statistical analyses that are most
appropriate.

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 Scales of Measurement

 Nominal
• Data are labels or names used to identify an
attribute of the element.
• A nonnumeric label or a numeric code may
be used.

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 Scales of Measurement

 Nominal
• Example:
Students of a university are classified by
the school in which they are enrolled
using a nonnumeric label such as
Business, Humanities, Education, and so
on.
Alternatively, a numeric code could be
used for the school variable (e.g. 1
denotes Business, 2 denotes Humanities,
3 denotes Education, and so on).

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 Scales of Measurement

 Ordinal
• The data have the properties of nominal
data and the order or rank of the data is
meaningful.
• A nonnumeric label or a numeric code may
be used.

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 Scales of Measurement

 Ordinal
• Example:
Students of a university are classified by
their class standing using a nonnumeric
label such as Freshman, Sophomore,
Junior, or Senior.
Alternatively, a numeric code could be
used for the class standing variable (e.g.
1 denotes Freshman, 2 denotes
Sophomore, and so on).

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 Scales of Measurement

 Interval
• The data have the properties of ordinal data
and the interval between observations is
expressed in terms of a fixed unit of
measure.
• Interval data are always numeric.

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 Scales of Measurement

 Interval
• Example:
Melissa has an SAT score of 1205, while
Kevin has an SAT score of 1090. Melissa
scored 115 points more than Kevin.

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 Scales of Measurement

 Ratio
• The data have all the properties of interval
data and the ratio of two values is
meaningful.
• Variables such as distance, height, weight,
and time use the ratio scale.
• This scale must contain a zero value that
indicates that nothing exists for the variable
at the zero point.

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 Scales of Measurement

 Ratio
• Example:
Melissa’s college record shows 36 credit
hours earned, while Kevin’s record shows
72 credit hours earned. Kevin has twice
as many credit hours earned as Melissa.

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 Qualitative and Quantitative Data

 Data can be further classified as being

qualitative or quantitative.
 The statistical analysis that is appropriate
depends on whether the data for the variable
are qualitative or quantitative.
 In general, there are more alternatives for
statistical analysis when the data are
quantitative.

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 Qualitative Data

 Qualitative data are labels or names used to

identify an attribute of each element.
 Qualitative data use either the nominal or
ordinal scale of measurement.
 Qualitative data can be either numeric or
nonnumeric.
 The statistical analysis for qualitative data are
rather limited.

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 Quantitative Data

 Quantitative data indicate either how many or

how much.
• Quantitative data that measure how many
are discrete.
• Quantitative data that measure how much
are continuous because there is no
separation between the possible values for
the data..
 Quantitative data are always numeric.
 Ordinary arithmetic operations are meaningful
only with quantitative data.

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 Cross-Sectional and Time Series Data

 Cross-sectional data are collected at the same

or approximately the same point in time.
• Example: data detailing the number of
building permits issued in June 2000 in each
of the counties of Texas
 Time series data are collected over several
time periods.
• Example: data detailing the number of
building permits issued in Travis County,
Texas in each of the last 36 months

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 Data Sources

 Existing Sources
• Data needed for a particular application
might already exist within a firm. Detailed
information is often kept on customers,
suppliers, and employees for example.
• Substantial amounts of business and
economic data are available from
organizations that specialize in collecting
and maintaining data.

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 Data Sources

 Existing Sources
• Government agencies are another
important source of data.
• Data are also available from a variety of
industry associations and special-interest
organizations.

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 Data Sources

 Internet
• The Internet has become an important
source of data.
• Most government agencies, like the Bureau
of the Census ([Link]), make their
data available through a web site.
• More and more companies are creating web
sites and providing public access to them.
• A number of companies now specialize in
making information available over the
Internet.

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 Data Sources

 Statistical Studies
• Statistical studies can be classified as either
experimental or observational.
• In experimental studies the variables of
interest are first identified. Then one or
more factors are controlled so that data can
be obtained about how the factors influence
the variables.
• In observational (nonexperimental) studies
no attempt is made to control or influence
the variables of interest; an example is a
survey.

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 Data Acquisition Considerations

 Time Requirement
• Searching for information can be time
consuming.
• Information might no longer be useful by the
time it is available.
 Cost of Acquisition
• Organizations often charge for information even
when it is not their primary business activity.
 Data Errors
• Using any data that happens to be available or
that were acquired with little care can lead to
poor and misleading information.

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 Descriptive Statistics

 Descriptive statistics are the tabular,

graphical, and numerical methods used to
summarize data.

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 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

The manager of Hudson Auto would like

to have
a better understanding of the cost of parts used
in the
engine tune-ups performed in the shop. She
examines
91 78 93
50 customer 57 75
invoices 52 99 80
for tune-ups. The97 62 of
costs
71 69 72 89 66 75 79 75 72 76
parts,
104 74
rounded 62 nearest
to the 68 97dollar,
105 77 65 80
are listed 109
below.
85 97 88 68 83 68 71 69 67 74
62 82 98 101 79 105 79 69 62 73

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 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Tabular Summary (Frequencies and Percent

Frequencies)
Parts Percent
Cost ($) Frequency
Frequency
50-59 2 4
60-69 13 26
70-79 16 32
80-89 7 14
90-99 7 14
100-109 5 10
Total 50 100

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 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Graphical Summary (Histogram)

18
16
14
Frequency

12
10
8
6
4
2
Parts
50 60 70 80 90 100 Cost ($)
110

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 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Numerical Descriptive Statistics

• The most common numerical descriptive
statistic is the average (or mean).
• Hudson’s average cost of parts, based on
the 50 tune-ups studied, is $79 (found by
summing the 50 cost values and then
dividing by 50).

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 Statistical Inference

 Statistical inference is the process of using

data obtained from a small group of elements
(the sample) to make estimates and test
hypotheses about the characteristics of a
larger group of elements (the population).

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 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

 Process of Statistical Inference

1. Population
consists of all 2. A sample of 50
tune-ups. Average engine tune-ups
cost of parts is is examined.
unknown.
unknown

4. The value of the 3. The sample data

sample average is used provide a sample
to make an estimate of average cost of
the population average. $79 per tune-up.

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 End of Chapter 1

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