CONDUCTORS

Conductors are material which have a large number of free electrons

( or other free charge carriers) eg. metals .
These free electrons are not
attached to any particular atom
+-
molecule, but are free to move +- -
+- ++ + +
through out the body of the
conductor.
- -
-+ -
+- - + -+
+-
Properties of Conductors
+-
+- - +- - +
- +- -
+ - - +
- +- + -
+ -
+ +
+ -
+- - +- +-
+ - -
+- -- +
+- +
 When the flow of electrons inside the
+- conductor stops, we can say that

- +- - +- - + F el 0

- +-  qE inside 0
- + - - +  E inside 0
- +- +
- + +- + E inside E ext  E induced

+ -
+- +- +
As the electrons keep on accumulating
- - on the surface, induced charges keep on
increasing so the field due to the
+ - +
- +- --
induced charges also increases till it is
just sufficient to balance the external

+- + electric field. Thus the net field inside

the conductor becomes zero in steady
state
[Link] field inside a conductor is zero in steady state.

- + V A  V B 0

E
- inside =0 + [Link] potential at all points inside
a conductor and on its surface have a
- + common value. So the surface of a
- A B + conductor is an equipotential surface
and field just outside the surface of
- + conductor is directed perpendicular to
the surface
 +  E S cos 0   (i )
+ + +- + q
+-
inside
    ( ii )
+- + - - 
- +- + +
o

 q 0
-+ - inside
- +- - + -+ +
- -
3. The net charge inside the conductor is always zero . The unbalanced charges of
a conductor reside only on its outer surface. So inside a conductor volume charge
density r =0, but the surface charge density can have a non-zero value.
  E dS cos E dS   ( i )

+ n qinside  dS   ( ii )
+
+ qinside


E=0
+ o
 dS
E dS 
+ dS o

 E 
+ o

E  ˆ
n
o
4. The electric field intensity just outside the surface of a conductor is given by
 Where s is the local surface charge
E  ˆ
n
o density, and n̂ is a unit vector normal to
the surface
 - +

- +

-
E=0
+

- +
-
- +
-
 dS 
E inside E 1  0
s/2e o 2 o

E1 s/2e o  E1 

2 o

E=0 dF (  dS ) E 1  (  dS ) 
2 o
2
 dF  dS
2 o
dF 2
 
dS 2 o

2
E lectrostatic pressure, P 
2 o
Properties of Conductors
(i) The net electric field inside a conductor is zero in steady state.
(ii) The potential of all points on the surface of a conductor and inside
it have a common value
(iii) Unbalanced charges of a conductor reside only on its outer
surface. The volume charge density of a conductor in steady state is zero at
all points inside the conductor.
(iv) The electric field at any point just outside the surface of a
conductor is given by
 where n ˆ unit vector normal to surface
E  nˆ
o &  local surfacech argedensity
(v) The electrostatic pressure at any point on the surface of a
conductor is  2
P 
2 o
 Simple problems on properties of Conductors
Example 1 : A conducting sphere of radius R is given a charge Q, and a point
charge q is kept outside it at a distance x ( > R ) from the centre of the sphere.
Find potential of the conductor.
Solution: + All charges of the conductor are equidistant
from the centre O so the potential of O due to
+ its own charge is
R +
V1 
1 Q
4 o R
x + Potential of O due to the point charge q is
+q + O +
1 q
V2 
4 o x
Q +
V V1  V2 
1 Q q
 

4 o  R x
 Example 2 : Two spherical conductors of radii r1 & r2 are given charges q1 & q2
and are kept at a large distance from each other. These two conductors are
then connected by a conducting wire. Find the ratio of final charges appearing
on the two, and also find the ratio of charge densities on the two conductors
Solution: q1  q2 q'1  q'2
r1 r2 1 q'1 1 q'2
V  
4 o r1 4 o r2
 q'1 4 o r1V & q'2 4 o r2V

q1 q’1 q’2 q2 
q'1 r
 1
q'2 r2
4 r12 1 r1 1 r
    2   1r1  2r2   r const.
4 r22 2 r2 2 r1
1
  
r
 1
  
r
M
A
B
C S
P
 Example 3 : A point charge q is placed at a distance x from the centre of a
spherical conductor of radius R (< x). Find the induced charges appearing on the
spherical conductor if it is earthed.
Solution: 1 q
V1 
4 o x

R V2 
1 q'
4 o R
x 1  q q' 
+q V V1  V2 
4 o  x

R 
1  q q' 
0  
4 o  x R 
q’  q' 
qR
x
 Example 4 : A conducting shell of inner radius ‘a’ and outer radius ‘b’ is given a
charge Q. If a point charge q is placed at the centre of the shell, find the
charges appearing on the inner and the outer faces of shell.
Solution:

qinside qx
Q-x   0  x  q
o o

a Charge on inner face is x = -q

x
q Charge on outer face is Q-x = Q + q
b

Q
 Example 5 : Two identical parallel conducting plates are kept at a small
separation from each other. Prove that the opposite facing plates always have
equal and opposite charges
Solution:  E S cos 0   (i )
qinside x  y   ( ii )
qinside

o
y x y
x  0  x  y
o
 Example 6 : Two identical parallel conducting plates are
kept at a small separation from each other. The left plate
is given a charge +q and the right one is given charge q
q’
q’ .Find the charges appearing on each face of the plates.
Solution:

1 2 3 4 E 1  E 2  E 3 E 4
x/ A
  ( q  x)/ A  ( x  q)/ A
A 2 o 2 o 2 o
( q'  q  x)/ A
x q-x 
2 o
x-q q’-x+q  x  ( q  x)  ( x  q) q'  q  x

 x ( q'  q)/ 2

q q’
 CAPACITANCE OF A CONDUCTOR

V µ q Þ q µ V Þ q=CV
(where C depends on the shape, size and surrounding of
the conductor )
q Coulomb
C= SI unit ® (= Farad)
V Volt
q Capacitance of a conductor can thus be defined as the amount of
charge which must be given to it so as to raise its potential by unity.
10 V 2V Capacitance of a conductor can be understood as the
ability of a conductor to store charges.
C=50 F Higher the value of capacitance higher is the ability of
C=10 F conductor to store charges.

100 C 100 C
 Capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor

1 q q R
V= C= = 4p Î o R =
4p Î o R V 9´ 109
R If radius of a sphere is 9 m, thenC = 10- 9 F
So, natural conductors have a very small value of capacitance.

What happens to the charge, potential and capacitance of a charged

conductor if we bring another uncharged conductor near it without
q touching it ?
1 q
- + + V = Vind = - ve Vnet = V + Vind = V + (- ve)
4p Î o R
- + Þ potential V decreases Capaci tan ceC increases
-
- +
1 A
- + Cµ Cµ A Þ Cµ
+q d d
Capacitor
It is a device which is used to store charges, it
V+ V-
must have a large value of capacitance.
A capacitor consists of two conductors kept close to +q -q
each other and they are given equal and opposite
charges. q
Capaci tan ce, C =
V+ - V-
Parallel Plate Capacitor Spherical Capacitor
Area A s q
E= = V+ = 0
Îo AÎo
q 1 q 1 q
V = Ed = d V- = -
AÎo a 4p Îo a 4p Î o b
q q q æ 1 1ö
C= = V = V + - V- = ç
ç - ÷
÷
÷
V qd / A Î o b +q 4p Î o ç
èa bø
d ÎoA q 4p Î O ab
+q -q Þ C = C= =
d -q V b- a
 C=20mF
C q A cell maintains a constant potential
difference V (emf of cell) across its
terminals and provides energy by
virtue of which it can make +ve charge
+q -q-q=-5mC Emf V
+q=5mC move from a point at lower potential (-
Wcell = q (V+ - V- ) = qV ve terminal) to a point at higher
potential (+ve terminal)

q=5mC

20 V
Wcell = qV = (5mC )(20V ) = 100mJ
Capacitor connected across a cell

C -q
+q
q
-V+ =0
C
Ch arg eon capacitor , q = CV
Potential diff . across plates of capacitor
V q CV
+q V '= = = V = emf of cell
C C
Work doneby cell in ch arging capacitor ,

Wcell = qV = (CV )V = CV 2

1
Energy stored in thecapacitor ,U = C V 2
2
Series grouping of Capacitors
q q q
-q + + - V =0
C1 C2 C3 +q C1 C2 C3
+q +q æ1 1 1ö
-q -q Þ qç + + ÷
ç ÷
÷=V
çC
è 1 C C ÷
2 3ø
1 1 1 V
Þ + + = (But, q = CeqV )
C1 C2 C3 q
V
1 1 1 V 1 1 1 1
Þ + + = Þ = + +
C1 C2 C3 CeqV Ceq C1 C2 C3

So, when capacitors are connected in series, the charge on each capacitor is the
same and its value can be found by the formula,

1 1 1 1
q = Ceq V where = + +
Ceq C1 C2 C3
Parallel grouping of Capacitors
C1 -x x
- V = 0 Þ x = C1V
+x C1
y
- V = 0 Þ y = C2V
-y+y C2
Total ch arg e pas sin g through cell
C2 q = x + y = (C1 + C2 )V (But q = Ceq V )
Þ CeqV = (C1 + C2 )V Þ Ceq = C1 + C2

V
So, when capacitors are connected in parallel, the potential drop across each
capacitor is the same and net charge provided by the cell is
q = Ceq V where Ceq = C1 + C2
Example 7 : Find the charges appearing on each of 10mF
capacitors and the potential drop across each one.
Solution: 2mF
6V 3mF
10mF
x+y -(x+y) y x 3
- = 0 Þ y = x - - (i )
3 2 2
x+y x
+ - 6 = 0 Þ 6x + y = 60 - - (ii )
+x +y 10 2
2mF Þ x = 8mF & y = 12mF
6V -x -y 3mF q10 = x + y = 20mF , V10 = 2V
x y
V2 = = 4V , V3 = = 4V
2 3
Wcell = (x + y)V = 120mJ
U = 60mJ
 10mF 20mC, 2V
10mF

C p = C1 + C2
= 5mF
6V 2mF 5mF 3mF
6V 20mC,4V 5mF

10mF
1 1 1
= + 10mF
Cs C1 C2
1 1 3 4V
= + =
5mF 5 10 10 2mF
6V 4V 3mF
6V Þ Cs = 10 / 3 mF
æ10 ö
q = CV = ç mF ÷
ç
÷(6V ) = 20mC
÷
ç
è3 ø
Example 8 : Find potential difference between the points A and B in the figure shown.
10mF
10mF
20mF -y +y
A 20mF 20mF
B
A 20mF 20mF
10mF
B -x +x -x +x
x+y -(x+y) 300V
300V 10mF
10mF x x y
- - - = 0 Þ x = y - - (i )
1 1 1 20 20 10
= + Þ Ceq = 20 / 3mF y x+y
Ceq 20 10 + - 300 = 0 Þ x + 2y = 3000 - - (ii )
10 10
q = CeqV = 2000mC Þ x = y = 1000
- y
V A - VB = = - 100V
q 2000 10 -x x
V20 = = = 100V = - = - 100V
C 20 20 20
x+y
= - 300 = - 100V
10
Example 8 : Find potential difference between the points A and B in the figure shown.

-y +y y x
- 6- + +12 = 0 Þ - 2x + y = 24 - - (i )
6V 4 2
4mF
-x +x
A B x x+y
12V 2mF - 12 - - + 24 = 0 Þ 3x + 2y = 24 - - (ii )
2 1
x+y -x-y
Þ y = 120 / 7 & x = - 24 / 7
24V 1mF
y 72
V A - VB = - 6 - =- V
4 7
x 72
= - 12 - =- V
2 7
x+y 72
= - 24 - =- V
1 7
 C 2=3mF C 3=2mF C 2=3mF C 3=6mF
C 1=6mF

C 1=6mF C 2=12mF C 1=9mF

12 V
10mF 18 V 18 V
24mF
6mF 4mF 12mF

18 V Find the potential difference between the points A and B

10mF
A A A B
2C 6mF 6mF
2C A
C B
C C 60V C 6mF 20mF 20mF
12V 2C
B 300V
B 6mF
10mF
30V
40mF 20mF 60mF A 20mF 2mF A 4mF
A

B B
90mF 5mF
20mF 40mF 30mF
30V 50V 6V B 6V
Find the equivalent capacitance
8mF

8mF 12mF 24mF 5mF C C C

C
7mF
C C C C C C
C
C
C C C C C C
C C C
 C C C
C C C
C
3mF 3mF 3mF C C C
1mF 3mF 6mF
3mF 3mF 3mF
1mF 1mF
1mF
6mF 4mF
2mF 12mF 8mF
1mF
3mF 3mF
4mF 2mF 12mF
1mF
1mF 1mF
 2mF 3mF 3mF
2mF 3mF
5mF 1mF 5mF 1mF 2mF 2mF 3mF

2mF 2mF 3mF 3mF 3mF

 x
Energy stored in a capacitor dx
 q  q2
q Felect . qE q  
V= E =q/2Aeo  2 A o  2 2 A o
dq C q
Fext Felect . 
dU = dWext Felect. Fext. 2 A o
+q -q q2
= dq V dU  dWext  Fext dx  dx
+q -q U d q2 2 Ao
q   dU  dx
= dq 0 0 2A 
C o
U q q q 2
d q2 1 q2 q2
Þ ò dU = ò dq U  dx  d 
0 0 C 2 A o 0 2 A o 2 ( A o / d ) 2C
1 q 1 q2 1 (CV )2
Þ U = ò qdq = = 1 1 o A 2
C 0 C 2 C 2 CV 2
V
Energy
Energy density , u  2 2 d
q2 1 1 Volume Ad Ad
Þ U= = CV 2 = qV 2
2C 2 2 1 V  1
 o    o E 2
2 d 2
Dielectric
Dielectrics are insulating materials which don’t have sufficient number of free electrons.
r
The field(or force) inside a dielectric decreases by a factor k ( or ) as compared to the
field in vacuum.
q q2
Fo 1 Fo
q E
q q2 o
1
F=F o / k F=Fo / k
q E=Eo /k
Dielectric
Dielectrics are insulating materials which don’t have sufficient number of
free electrons . The field inside a dielectric decreases by a factor k ( or r ) as
compared to the field in vacuum.
q q2
E Fo 1 Fo
E o
k F=F o / k F=Fo / k
E=s/2ke o
E=s/2e o
1 q
Eo 
4 o r 2
q E=Eo /k
E 1 q
o E Eo / k 
4 o k r 2
 Polarisation of dielectric
Polar dielectric
Dipole moment per unit volume is
called polarisation
- - +

-

+ dipole moment

- -
p P
 + volume

+
P qp d
+ +
- -
Volume 
+

+
3 2
Ad

-
SI unit  Cm / m C / m
( A )d
 p
unit of surface charge density s . -
The unit is same as that of the

-
+ Ad

+
+

+
-  p

- + surface density

-
of bound ch arg es

-s
p
s p
Non-polar dielectric

dipole moment
- P
volume
q d
 p
+ - Ad
- + + ( p A )d
+ 
Ad

-  p
surface density
of bound ch arg es

-sp s p
 E Eo  Ebound
But , Ebound  E
Ebound  Ebound  E

Eo  Eo  E   E
 Eo (   1) E

Eo E
 E  o
 1 k
 Capacitor with a dielectric Capacitor with a dielectric slab
s q
s q d Eo = =
Eo = = Îo AÎo
d Îo AÎo
Eo q
E q E 
E o  k A o k
k A o k
Eo E Eo V Eo ( d  t )  E t
qd
V = Ed = q q
AÎok  (d  t )  t
q q A o A o k
C= =
V qd / A Î o k q
C= q
=
kÎ A V q(d - t) / A Î
Þ C= o
= k Co t o
d Î A
+q -q Þ C= o
t
+q -q d- t +
k
Capacitor with a multiple dielectric slab Example 9 : Find the capacitance of the
capacitor which is filled with a two dielectrics
as shown in the figure below
V E1t1  E2t2
k1 o A1
t1 C1 
E2=q/Ak2 eo q  t1 t 2  t k1 d
    1 k
E1=q/Ak1 eo A o  k1 k2  1
q
C
V k2 k2
k1 k2 k2 o A2
q t2 C 
 t2 2
d
q  t1 t 2 
  
A o  k1 k2 
t1 t2
A o
+q -q

t1 t 2 o o A k1t1  k2t2 
 C C1  C 2   1 1 2 2
k A  k A 
k1 k 2 d d ( t1  t 2 )
Example 10. Find the capacitance of the Example 11. Find the capacitance of the
parallel plate capacitor if one-fourth the parallel plate capacitor if a dielectric is filled
space between the plates is filled with a in the space between the plates such that the
dielectric of dielectric constant k. dielectric constant depends on the distance
d/2 Area, A from the left plate as k    x
d/2 Area, A/2
o A / 2
k h/2 C1  dV  Edx
k d d dx
h h/2 d  q
2 2k  dx
E=q/Ake o Ak o
 A k  q
d  o   x  dx
d  k 1  A(   x ) o
 A V d q
C2  o
2d
V dV 
0 A(    x ) 
o
dx
+q -q q    d 
d  V  V  ln
 A  3k  1 
C C1  C2  o 
 
 A o   
 q  A o
2d  k  1 
C 
V ln (   d ) /  
Loss of energy due to sharing of charges between conductors

C1V1  C2V2 C1V  C2V

C1 C2
C V  C2V2
V1 V2 V 1 1   ( ii )
C1  C2

1 C1V1  C2V2 
2
1 1 1 1
Uinitial  C1V12  C2V22   ( i ) Ufinal  C1V 2  C2V 2 
2 2 2 2 2 C1  C2

1 C1C2
V1  V2 
2
U Uinital  Ufinal 
2 C1  C2
Example 12. A capacitor is completely charged by a cell. The charging cell is then
disconnected and the space between the plates is completely filled with a dielectric of
dielectric constant k=10. Find the changes in
(i) Capacitance. (ii) Charge on the capacitor. (iii) Potential drop across
plates
(iv) Field between the plates. (v) Energy stored in the capacitor.
Solution:  A
(i ) C  o ( o  k o 10 o )
q -q d
q = CV
 C ' 10 C
( ii ) q' q
C
q qd
( iii ) V    V ' V / 10
C A o
q
V ( iv ) E   E ' E / 10
A o
q2 q 2d  U ' U / 10
(v ) U  
2C 2 o A
Example 13. A capacitor is completely charged by a cell. Without disconnecting the cell
space between the plates is completely filled with a dielectric of dielectric constant k=10.
Find the changes in
(i) Capacitance. (ii) Potential drop across the plates. (iii) Charge on the capacitor
(iv) Field between the plates. (v) Energy stored in the capacitor.

Solution:  A
(i ) C  o ( o  k o 10 o )
q -q d
q = CV
 C ' 10 C
( ii ) V ' V
C
( iii ) q CV o A V  q' 10 q
d
V
V ( iv ) E   E ' E
d
1 1 A  U ' 10 U
( v ) U  CV 2  o V 2
2 2 d
Example 13. A Find the equivalent capacitance in the combination of capacitors shown in
the figure below.

C 4C x x y y
y   0  8 x 5y   ( i )
x -x -y C C 4C
x-y
x y
y-x C   V 0  4 x  y 4CV   ( ii )
C 4C
y -y x -x
4C C  x 5CV / 7 & y 8CV / 7

V q x  y 13CV / 7

q 13CV / 7
Ceq   13C / 7
V V
Circuits involving symmetry C1 C3
C1C3
C1 x -x y -y
C3 C1  C3
x -x x-y
x -x y-x
0 C
y -y x -x
0 C
y -y C2C4 C2 C4
y -y
C4 C2  C4
C2
V
C1 C4
V If 
C2 C3
C1 C3 x x y y
If    0   ( i )
C2 C4 C1 C C2
CC CC x y
Ceq  1 3  2 4   V 0   ( ii )
C1  C3 C2  C4 C1 C3
Example 14. A Find the equivalent capacitance in the combination of capacitors shown in
the figure below.
2mF 8mF

1mF
Ans:4 mF

3mF 12mF

2mF 5mF 2mF 3mF

1mF

Ans:3 mF 4mF
Ans(28/11) mF
5mF 2mF 6mF 1mF