University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines

Civil Engineering Department

GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING (SOIL
MECHANICS)

Geotechnical Eng’g –
A Historical Perspective

By: CE Faculty
 Chapter 1:
Geotechnical Eng’g – A Historical Perspective

Chapter 1 elaborates on historical perspective of soil mechanics which

reflects the journey of discovery, innovation, and adaptation. From ancient
civilizations' empirical wisdom to the modern era's sophisticated
laboratory testing and numerical simulations, soil mechanics has
continuously evolved to meet the demands of a changing world. Today, it
stands as a vital discipline within civil engineering, providing the
knowledge and tools needed to navigate the complexities of soil and
foundation-related challenges in construction and infrastructure
development.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Chapter 1:
Geotechnical Eng’g – A Historical Perspective
Intended Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this topic, students will be able to:

1. Develop a deep understanding of how soil mechanics has evolved over

time, from empirical practices in ancient civilizations to the establishment of
scientific principles in modern geotechnical engineering;

2. Discuss the major period of the geotechnical engineering history; and

3. Explain the contribution of the scientists in geotechnical engineering history

-by CE322
Faculty
 Chapter 1:
Geotechnical Eng’g – A Historical Perspective

Topics:
1. Definition of Soil Mechanics, Soil Engineering, and
Geotechnical Engineering
2. Geotechnical Engineering Prior to the 18th Century
3. Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods
4. Geotechnical Engineering after 1927
5. End of an Era

-by CE322
Faculty
 Introduction
DEFINITION

In Agronomy – soil means the upper layer of the earth that may be dug or plowed;
especially, the loose surface of the earth in which plants grow.

In Geology – earth’s crust is assumed to consist of unconsolidated sediments called

mantle or regolith.

However, in geotechnical engineering, the term “soil” as defined by the agronomist or the geologist
is known as top soil. This classification of soil consists of large quantity or organic matter hence, not
suitable as a construction material or as foundation for structures.

Soil is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter
(solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid particles.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Definition of Soil Mechanics, Soil Engineering, and
Geotechnical Engineering

The term “SOIL MECHANICS” was coined by DR. KARL TERZAGHI in 1925
when his book “ERDBAUMECHANIC” on the subject was published in
GERMANY. According to TERZAGHI:

Soil Mechanics is the application of the laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering
problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles
produced by the mechanicals and chemical disintegration of rocks, regardless of whether they
contain an admixture or organic constituents.

Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical properties of
soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces.

Soils engineering is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical problems.

Geotechnical engineering is the subdiscipline of civil engineering that involves natural materials
found close to the surface of the earth.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering Prior to the 18th Century

- The understanding of geotechnical engineering as it is known today began early in the 18th
century (Skempton, 1985).

- For years, the art of geotechnical engineering was based on only past experiences through
a succession of experimentation without any real scientific character. Based on those
experimentations, many structures were built—some of which have crumbled, while others
are still standing.

- Recorded history tells us that ancient civilizations flourished along the banks of rivers, such as the Nile
(Egypt), Tigris and Euphrates (Mesopotamia), Huang Ho (Yellow River, China), and Indus (India).

- During the Chan dynasty in China (1120 B.C. to 249 B.C.) many dykes were built for irrigation purposes.
There is no evidence that measures were taken to stabilize the foundations or check erosion caused by
floods (Kerisel, 1985).
- Ancient Greek civilization used isolated pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations for building structures.
- Beginning around 2700 B.C., several pyramids were built in Egypt, most of which were built as tombs for
the country’s Pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.
- With the arrival of Buddhism in China during the Eastern Han dynasty in 68 A.D., thousands of pagodas
were built. -by CE322
Faculty
 •Famous examples of problems related to soil-bearing

The Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy

•Famous examples of problems related to soil-bearing capacity in the

construction of structures prior to the
18th century

•Construction of the tower began in 1173 A.D. when the Republic of Pisa
was flourishing and continued in various stages for over 200 years

•The structure weighs about 15,700 metric tons and is supported by a

circular base having a diameter of 20 m

•The tower has tilted in the past to the east, north, west, and finally, to the
south.

-by CE322
Faculty
 The Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy

• Recent investigations showed that a weak clay layer existed at a

depth of about 11 m below the ground surface compression of which
caused the tower to tilt. It became more than 5 m out of plumb with
the 54 m height.

• The tower was closed in 1990 because it was feared that

it would either fall over or collapse.

• It recently has been stabilized by excavating soil from under the north
side of the tower. About 70 metric tons of earth were removed in 41
separate extractions that spanned the width of the tower.

• As the ground gradually settled to fill the resulting space, the tilt of
the tower eased. The tower now leans 5 degrees. The half-degree
change is not noticeable, but it makes the structure considerably
more stable.
-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

Based on the emphasis and the nature of study in the area of geotechnical engineering,
the time span extending from 1700 to 1927 can be divided into four major periods
(Skempton, 1985):
A. Preclassical (1700 to 1776 A.D.)
B. Classical soil mechanics—Phase I (1776 to 1856 A.D.)
C. Classical soil mechanics—Phase II (1856 to 1910 A.D.)
D. Modern soil mechanics (1910 to 1927 A.D.)

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

A. Preclassical (1700 to 1776 A.D.)

(This period concentrated on studies relating to natural slope and unit weights of
various types of soils, as well as the semiempirical earth pressure theories.)

Henri Gautier (1660–1737)

 a French royal engineer

 studied the natural slopes of soils in 1717
 The natural slope is what we now refer to as the
angle of repose.
 According to this study, the natural slope of clean dry
sand and ordinary earth were 31° and 45°,
respectively.
 Also, the unit weight of clean dry sand and ordinary
earth were recommended to be 18.1 kN/m3 and 13.4
kN/m3(85 lb/ft3), respectively.
 No test results on clay were reported.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

A. Preclassical (1700 to 1776 A.D.)

(This period concentrated on studies relating to natural slope and unit weights of
various types of soils, as well as the semiempirical earth pressure theories.)

Bernard Forest de Belidor (1671–1761)

 published a textbook for military and civil engineers in France

 In the book, he proposed a theory for lateral earth

pressure on retaining walls that was a follow up to
Gautier’s (1717) original study.

Table 1: Unit weight of various type of soil

Classification Unit Weight (kN/m3)
Rock
Firm or hard sand 16.7
Compressible sand 18.4
Ordinary earth (as found in dry locations) 13.4
Soft earth (primarily silt) 16.0
Clay 18.9 -by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

A. Preclassical (1700 to 1776 A.D.)

(This period concentrated on studies relating to natural slope and unit weights of
various types of soils, as well as the semiempirical earth pressure theories.)

Francois Gadroy (1705–1759)

 a French engineer
 Reported the first laboratory model test results on a 76-mm-high
retaining wall built with sand backfill in 1746.

J. J. Mayniel in 1808
Summarized the study of Gadroy

Jean Rodolphe Perronet (1708–1794)

 a French engineer
 studied slope stability around 1769 and distinguished between intact
ground and fills.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

B. Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase I (1776–1856)

(During this period, most of the developments in the area of geotechnical engineering
came from engineers and scientists in France. In the preclassical period, practically
all theoretical considerations used in calculating lateral earth pressure on retaining
walls were based on an arbitrarily based failure surface in soil.)

Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736–1806)

 French scientist

 used the principles of calculus for maxima and minima to

determine the true position of the sliding surface in soil behind a
retaining wall.

 In this analysis, Coulomb used the laws of friction and cohesion

for solid bodies.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

B. Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase I (1776–1856)

(During this period, most of the developments in the area of geotechnical engineering
came from engineers and scientists in France. In the preclassical period, practically
all theoretical considerations used in calculating lateral earth pressure on retaining
walls were based on an arbitrarily based failure surface in soil.)

Gaspard Clair Marie Riche de Prony (1755–1839)

 French civil engineer

 included Coulomb’s theory in his leading textbook,Nouvelle

Architecture Hydraulique (Vol. 1) in 1790

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

B. Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase I (1776–1856)

(During this period, most of the developments in the area of geotechnical engineering
came from engineers and scientists in France. In the preclassical period, practically
all theoretical considerations used in calculating lateral earth pressure on retaining
walls were based on an arbitrarily based failure surface in soil.)

Jacques Frederic Francais (1775–1833) and

Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier (1785–1836)

 Studied special cases of Coulomb’s work in 1820

 These special cases related to inclined backfills and backfills

supporting surcharge.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

B. Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase I (1776–1856)

(During this period, most of the developments in the area of geotechnical engineering
came from engineers and scientists in France. In the preclassical period, practically
all theoretical considerations used in calculating lateral earth pressure on retaining
walls were based on an arbitrarily based failure surface in soil.)

Jean Victor Poncelet (1788–1867)

 an army engineer and professor of mechanics

 extended Coulomb’s theory by providing a graphical method for

determining the magnitude of lateral earth pressure on vertical and
inclined retaining walls with arbitrarily broken polygonal ground
surfaces in 1840.

 he was also the first to use the symbol 𝜙 for soil friction angle. He also
provided the first ultimate bearing-capacity theory for shallow
foundations.
-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

B. Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase I (1776–1856)

(During this period, most of the developments in the area of geotechnical engineering
came from engineers and scientists in France. In the preclassical period, practically
all theoretical considerations used in calculating lateral earth pressure on retaining
walls were based on an arbitrarily based failure surface in soil.)

Alexandre Collin (1808–1890)

 an engineer

 provided the details for deep slips in clay slopes, cutting, and
embankments

 He theorized that in all cases the failure takes place when the
mobilized cohesion exceeds the existing cohesion of the soil.

 He also observed that the actual failure surfaces could be

approximated as arcs of cycloids.
-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

B. Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase I (1776–1856)

(During this period, most of the developments in the area of geotechnical engineering
came from engineers and scientists in France. In the preclassical period, practically
all theoretical considerations used in calculating lateral earth pressure on retaining
walls were based on an arbitrarily based failure surface in soil.)

William John Macquorn Rankine (1820–1872)

 The end of Phase I of the classical soil mechanics period is

generally marked by the year (1857) of the first publication by
Rankine

 a professor of civil engineering at the University of Glasgow.

 This study provided a notable theory on earth pressure and

equilibrium of earth masses. Rankine’s theory is a simplification of
Coulomb’s theory.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

C. Classical soil mechanics—Phase II (1856 to 1910 A.D.)

(Several experimental results from laboratory tests on sand appeared in the literature
in this phase)

Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy (1803–1858)

 French engineer

 he published a study on the permeability of sand filters in 1856.

 Based on those tests, Darcy defined the term coefficient of permeability (or
hydraulic conductivity) of soil, a very useful parameter in geotechnical
engineering to this day.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

C. Classical soil mechanics—Phase II (1856 to 1910 A.D.)

(Several experimental results from laboratory tests on sand appeared in the literature
in this phase)

George Howard Darwin (1845–1912)

 professor of astronomy

 Conducted laboratory tests to determine the overturning moment on a

hinged wall retaining sand in loose and dense states of compaction.

Joseph Valentin Boussinesq (1842–1929)

 He developed the theory of stress distribution under loaded bearing

areas in a homogeneous, semi-infinite, elastic, and isotropic medium in
1885.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

C. Classical soil mechanics—Phase II (1856 to 1910 A.D.)

(Several experimental results from laboratory tests on sand appeared in the literature
in this phase)

Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912)

 He demonstrated the phenomenon of dilatancy in sand in 1887.

John Clibborn (1847–1938)

John Stuart Beresford (1845–1925)

 Both studied the flow of water through sand bed and uplift pressure.

 Clibborn’s study was published in the Treatise on Civil Engineering, Vol. 2: Irrigation Work in India,
Roorkee in 1901 and also in Technical Paper No. 97, Government of India in 1902.

 Beresford’s 1898 study on uplift pressure on the Narora Weir on the Ganges River has been
documented in Technical Paper No. 97, Government of India in 1902.
-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

D. Modern Soil Mechanics (1910–1927)

(In this period, results of research conducted on clays were published in which the
fundamental properties and parameters of clay were established)

Albert Mauritz Atterberg (1846–1916)

 a Swedish chemist and soil scientist

 He defined clay-size fractions as the percentage by weight of particles

smaller than 2 microns in size.

 He realized the important role of clay particles in a soil and the plasticity
thereof.

 In 1911, he explained the consistency of cohesive soils by defining liquid,

plastic, and shrinkage limits.

 He also defined the plasticity index as the difference between liquid limit
and plastic limit -by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

D. Modern Soil Mechanics (1910–1927)

(In this period, results of research conducted on clays were published in which the
fundamental properties and parameters of clay were established)

Jean Fontard (1884–1962)

 French engineer

 He investigated the cause of failure of the 17-m-high earth dam at Charmes, France on October
1909.

 In that context, he conducted undrained double-shear tests on clay specimens (0.77 m2 in area
and 200 mm thick) under constant vertical stress to determine their shear strength parameters.

 The times for failure of these specimens were between 10 to 20 minutes.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

D. Modern Soil Mechanics (1910–1927)

(In this period, results of research conducted on clays were published in which the
fundamental properties and parameters of clay were established)

Arthur Langley Bell (1874–1956)

 civil engineer from England

 worked on the design and construction of the outer seawall at Rosyth Dockyard.

 Based on his work, he developed relationships for lateral pressure and resistance in clay as
well as bearing capacity of shallow foundations in clay

 He also used shear-box tests to measure the undrained shear strength of undisturbed clay
specimens.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

D. Modern Soil Mechanics (1910–1927)

(In this period, results of research conducted on clays were published in which the
fundamental properties and parameters of clay were established)

Wolmar Fellenius (1876–1957)

 engineer from Sweden

 developed the stability analysis of saturated clay slopes (that is, Ø = 0

condition) with the assumption that the critical surface of sliding is the arc of
a circle.

 These were elaborated upon in his papers published in 1918 and 1926. The
paper published in 1926 gave correct numerical solutions for the stability
numbers of circular slip surfaces passing through the toe of the slope.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering: The Four Major Periods

D. Modern Soil Mechanics (1910–1927)

(In this period, results of research conducted on clays were published in which the
fundamental properties and parameters of clay were established)

Karl Terzaghi (1883–1963)

 developed the theory of consolidation for clays

 The theory was developed when he was teaching at the American

Robert College in Istanbul, Turkey.

 His study spanned a five-year period from 1919 to 1924. Five different
clay soils were used. The liquid limit of those soils ranged between 36
and 67, and the plasticity index was in the range of 18 to 38.

 The consolidation theory was published in Terzaghi’s celebrated book

Erdbaumechanik in 1925.

-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering after 1927

(The publication of Erdbaumechanik auf Bodenphysikalisher Grundlage by

Karl Terzaghi in 1925 gave birth to a new era in the development of soil
mechanics.)

Karl Terzaghi (1883–1963)

- father of modern soil mechanics
- was born on October 2, 1883 in Prague, which was then the capital of the
Austrian province of Bohemia.
- In 1904 he graduated from the Technische Hochschule in Graz, Austria, with an
undergraduate degree in mechanical engineering. After graduation he served
one year in the Austrian army.
- Following his army service, Terzaghi studied one more year, concentrating on
geological subjects. In January 1912, he received the degree of Doctor of
Technical Sciences from his alma mater in Graz. In 1916, he accepted a teaching
position at the Imperial School of Engineers in Istanbul. After the end of World
War I, he accepted a lectureship at the American Robert College in Istanbul
(1918–1925). There he began his research work on the behavior of soils and
settlement of clays and on the failure due to piping in sand under dams. The
publication Erdbaumechanik is primarily the result of this research.
-by CE322
Faculty
 Geotechnical Engineering after 1927

(The publication of Erdbaumechanik auf Bodenphysikalisher Grundlage by

Karl Terzaghi in 1925 gave birth to a new era in the development of soil
mechanics.)

Karl Terzaghi (1883–1963)

- In 1925, Terzaghi accepted a visiting lectureship at Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, where he worked until 1929. During that time, he became
recognized as the leader of the new branch of civil engineering called soil
mechanics. In October 1929, he returned to Europe to accept a professorship at
the Technical University of Vienna, which soon became the nucleus for civil
engineers interested in soil mechanics. In 1939, he returned to the United States
to become a professor at Harvard University.
- The first conference of the International Society of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering (ISSMFE) was held at Harvard University in 1936 with
Karl Terzaghi presiding. The conference was possible due to the conviction and
efforts of Professor Arthur Casagrande of Harvard University. About 200
individuals representing 21 countries attended this conference.

-by CE322
Faculty
 End of an Era

(A brief outline of the contributions made to modern soil mechanics by

pioneers such as Karl Terzaghi, Arthur Casagrande, Donald W. Taylor, Laurits
Bjerrum, and Ralph B. Peck)

Ralph B. Peck (1912 – 2008)

 He received B.S. and Ph.D. degrees in 1934 and 1937, respectively, from
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York.
 During the period from 1938 to 1939, he took courses from Arthur Casagrande at
Harvard University in a new subject called “soil mechanics.”
 From 1939 to 1943, Dr. Peck worked as an assistant to Karl Terzaghi, the “father”
of modern soil mechanics, on the Chicago Subway Project.
 In 1943, he joined the University of Illinois at Champaign–Urban and was a
professor of foundation engineering from 1948 until he retired in 1974.
 On March 13, 2008, The Times of the United Kingdom wrote, “Ralph B. Peck was
an American civil engineer who invented a controversial construction technique
that would be used on some of the modern engineering wonders of the world,
including the Channel Tunnel.

-by CE322
Faculty
 End of an Era

(A brief outline of the contributions made to modern soil mechanics by

pioneers such as Karl Terzaghi, Arthur Casagrande, Donald W. Taylor, Laurits
Bjerrum, and Ralph B. Peck)

Ralph B. Peck (1912 – 2008)

 Known as ‘the godfather of soil mechanics,’ he was directly responsible for a

succession of celebrated tunneling and earth dam projects that pushed the
boundaries of what was believed to be possible.”
 Dr. Peck authored more than 250 highly distinguished technical publications. He
was the president of the ISSMGE from 1969 to 1973. In 1974, he received the
National Medal of Science from President Gerald R. Ford. Professor Peck was a
teacher, mentor, friend, and counselor to generations of geotechnical engineers in
every country in the world. The 16th ISSMGE Conference in Osaka, Japan (2005)
would be the last major conference of its type that he would attend.
 This is truly the end of an era!

-by CE322
Faculty
 UNIT SUMMARY

In this chapter, definition and history of geotechnical engineering

were discussed. Some important ideas include:

 SOIL MECHANICS” was coined by DR. KARL TERZAGHI in 1925.

 The understanding of geotechnical engineering as it is known
today began early in the 18th century.
 The nature of study in the area of geotechnical engineering started
from 1700 until 1927 A.D.
 Four major period of era: Preclassical (1700 to 1776 A.D.);
Classical soil mechanics—Phase I (1776 to 1856 A.D.); Classical
soil mechanics—Phase II (1856 to 1910 A.D.); and Modern soil
mechanics (1910 to 1927 A.D.
 Karl Terzaghi (1883–1963) is the father of modern soil mechanics

-by CE322
Faculty
University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines
Civil Engineering Department

QUESTIONS

By: CE Faculty