PRAYER

Solutions
Solutions play an important role in
Chemistry and in the world around us. Most
reactions we observe occur in solution.
The fluids in our bodies are complex solutions
that distribute nutrients and oxygen throughout
the body.
Solution
Solutions is a homogeneous mixture
containing particles size of which is of
typical ion or covalent molecule: 0.2-2.0 nm
in diameter.

Composed of :
solute and
solvent
 Properties of Solutions
• Solution - homogeneous mixture
• Solute - the substance in the mixture
present in lesser quantity
and the one that is dissolved
• Solvent - the substance present in the
largest quantity and the
one that dissolves
• Aqueous solution - solution where the
solvent is water
• Solutions can be liquids as well as solids
and gases
 Types of Solutions
SOLUTION
Gaseous Solution SOLUTE SOLVENT
Dry air (mixture of O2, N2 and other gases Gas Gas
Water in air Liquid Gas
Dust in air Solid Gas
Liquid Solution
Carbonated softdrinks (CO2 in water) Gas Liquid
Vinegar (acetic acid in water) Liquid Liquid
Saltwater, syrup (sugar solution) Solid Liquid

Solid Solution
H2 in platinum Gas Solid
Dental filling Liquid Solid
Brass (Cu and Zn), bronze Solid Solid
 General Properties of Liquid Solutions

• Clear
• May have color
• Remember that electrolytes
are compounds that dissociate
when they dissolve in water.
NaCl(s )  H
2O
 Na  ( aq )  Cl- (aq )
• Nonelectrolytes do not dissociate.
Example : SUGAR
 An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in
water, results in a solution that can conduct electricity.
A nonelectrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved,
results in a solution that does not conduct electricity.

nonelectrolyte weak electrolyte strong electrolyte

 Properties Solution Colloidal Dispersion Suspension
1. Appearance Clear Transparent, Turbid or
translucent or opaque
opaque
2. Particle size 0.2-2.0 nm (10A) 2.0 - 1000 nm Greater than 1000
(10 - 2000 A) nm (2000 A)
3. Forms of Individual ions macromolecules or big aggregates of
particles or molecules aggregates molecules
4. Visibility of Invisible Visible only with Visible to
Particles ultramicroscope naked eye
Particles pass Particles pass through Particles do not pass
5. Filterability through filter filter paper but not through filter paper
paper and through membrane or and membranes
membrane ultrafilters
6. Optical Does not exhibit exhibit Tyndall effect Does not exhibit
properties Tyndall effect Tyndall effect
7. Stability of Particles do not nonsettling for a time but
may do so after long period
Particles readily
particles settle on standing of time settle on standing
8. Brownian Does not exhibit exhibits Brownian little or none at all
movement Brownian movement moves only by force
movement of gravity
9. [Link] Charge ions or as always charged Either positive or
molecules chargeless
• Tyndall effect - the ability of a colloidal
suspension to scatter light.
– See this as a haze when shining light
through the mixture.
– Solutions: light passes right through
without scattering.
 Tyndalleffect
Tyndall Effectisisthe appearance
caused of tiny
by reflection reflections
of light by very
ofsmall
lightparticles
in a mixture.
in suspension
(much in
likea dust
transparent
in a roommedium.
reflects
It is often seen
from from
a ray the dust in the air when sunlight
of sunlight.)
comes in through a window, or comes down through holes
inSolutions
clouds. are too small of particles to show this effect.
Brownian motion is the constant movement
of small particles that keeps other particles
suspended.
 Types of Colloidal Dispersion
Colloids
EXAMPLES DISPERSED DISPERSION
TYPE PHASE MEDIUM

plasma, inks, paints and gold sols SOL Solid Liquid

colored gems, porcelain and
pigmented plastics SOLID SOL Solid Solid

milk, mayonnaise, salad dressing EMULSION Two immiscible liquids

SOLID Liquid Solid
cheese, butter, pearls EMULSION
whipped cream, soap suds, and
shaving cream FOAM Gas Liquid
meringue, polyurethane foam, Gas Solid
styrofoam SOLID FOAM
fog, mist and aerosol sprays AEROSOL Liquid Gas
smoke, fumes, airborne viruses, SOLID Solid Gas
particulate matter and auto exhaust AEROSOL
 There are two general ways of
expressing concentrations :

Qualitative way - where no fixed amount of

solute and solvent is given.

Quantitative way - where the amount of

solute and solvent is given.
 Qualitative Ways of
Expressing Concentrations :
A diluted solution is said to be diluted if a
relatively small amount of solute is dissolved
in a large amount of solvent.
A saturated solution contains the maximum amount
of a solute that will dissolve in a given solvent at a
An specific temperature.
unsaturated solution contains less solute than
the solvent has the capacity to dissolve at a
specific temperature.
A supersaturated solution contains more solute
than is present in a saturated solution at a specific
temperature.
Sodium acetate crystals rapidly form when a seed
crystal is added to a supersaturated solution of
sodium acetate.
What are the factors that affect
the solubility of a solute
in a given solvent?
 Degree of Solubility
• Solubility - how much solute can dissolve in
a solvent.
• Factors which affect solubility:
1. Polarity (Nature of solute and solvent)
• The more they are different, the less soluble.
2. Temperature (solubility of solid and
temperature), (solubility of gas and
teperature)
• increase in temperature usually increases
solubility.
3. Pressure (gas and pressure)
• for gas solutes, increased pressure of gas
increases solubility
 “like dissolves like”
Two substances with similar intermolecular
forces are likely to be soluble in each other.
• non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar
solvents
CCl4 in C6H6 carbon tetrachoride /benzene
• polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents
C2H5OH in H2O ethyl alcohol/water
• ionic compounds are more soluble in polar
solvents
NaCl in H2O or NH3(l) sodium chloride/
water /ammonia
 Quanti tati ve Ways of
Expressing Concentrati ons
Percent by weight (%W) represents the parts by weight
of solute per 100 parts by weight of solution.
Percent by volume (%V) represents the parts by volume
of solute per 100 parts by volume of solution.
mole fraction (x) the number of moles of a component
in one mole of a solution.
molality (m) the number of moles of a solute in one
kilogram of solvent.
Molarity (M) the number of gram-molecular weight
(moles) solute in one liter of solution.
 Concentration of Solutions:
Percentage
• Concentration - amount of solute
dissolved in a given amount of solution.

amount of solute
concentrat ion 
amount of solution
• We will learn to express concentration in 3 ways:

Weight/Volume Percent,
Weight/Weight Percent and
Molarity
Weight/Volume Percent
W grams of solute
% = x 100
V milliliter of solution
Weight/Weight Percent
W grams solute
% = x 100
W grams solution
Used most often with solid solutions.
Volume/Volume Percent
V Volume solute
% = x 100
V Volume solution
Used most often with liquid solutions.
 Concentration Units
The concentration of a solution is the amount of
solute present in a given quantity of solvent or
solution.
Percent by Mass
mass of solute
% by mass = mass of solute + mass of solventx 100%

= mass of solute x 100%

mass of solution
Mole Fraction (X)
moles of A
XA =
sum of moles of all components
1. Calculate the %(W/W) of copper in an alloy
containing 15.0 g copper and 25.0 g nickel.
15 g Cu
25 g Ni
answer : 37.5% 40 g alloy 15/40 X 100
= 37.5 % Ni
2. A sample of silver and gold is 60%(W/W)silver.
If the sample has a mass of 30.0 g, what is the
mass of silver?
% = w/w
answer : 18 grams 60 % = W/30 g sample
W= .60 x 30 = 18 g Ag
1. Calculate the %W/V of 500 mL containing
40.0 g sodium chloride.
answer : 8 %
2. How many grams is required to make 200
mL of a 5 % glucose solution.
answer : 10 g glucose
3. What volume is required to make a 30.0%
glucose solution containing 20.0 g glucose

answer : 66.7 mL solution

An antifreeze solution was prepared by dissolving 125 mL of
methyl alcohol in sufficient water to produce 350 mL of
solution. What is the concentration of this solution expressed
as percent by volume methyl alcohol?
answer : 35.71 %
Solution :
Given : volume of methyl alcohol = 125 mL
volume of solution = 350 mL
V Volume solute V Vol. methyl alcohol
% V = Volume solution x 100 % = x 100
V Volume solution

V 125 mL
% = x 100
V 350 mL

answer : 35.71 %
Concentration of Solutions:
Moles and Equivalents

Molarity
moles solute
M
L solution
 Using Molarities in
Stoichiometric Calculations
 1. Calculate the Molarity of a 150.0 mL
solution containing 10.0 g NaOH.
M=moles =10 g x 1molNaOH/40g
L 150 ml x 1L/1000 mL
answer : 1.67M
2. How many grams of NaCl is required to
make 200.0 mL of a 0.125 M solution?
M=moles = 0.125M = moles_______ = moles
L 200 ml x 1 L/1000 mL 0.2 L
moles = 0.125 M x 0.2 L
= 0.025 x 58 g NaCl/mole
answer : 1.45 g NaCl
 Convert % mass to Molarity
• What is the Molarity of a 95% acetic acid
solution? (density = 1.049 g/mL)
If you assume 1 L, that amount of solution = 1049 g
D = w w = Dx V = 1.049 g x 1000 ml
v ml L
95% of the solution is acetic acid
1049 g solution x 0.95 = 997 g solute
997 g X 1 mol/60 g = 16.61 mol solute
Since we assumed 1 L, that’s 16.61 mol / 1 L or
16.61 M
 Solution Stoichiometry
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute
present in a given quantity of solvent or solution.
moles of solute
M = molarity =
liters of solution

What mass of KI is required to make 500. mL

of a 2.80 M KI solution?
1L 2.80 mol KI 166 g KI
500. mL x 1000 mL x 1 L soln x 1 mol KI

= 232 g KI
Concentrated sulfuric acid is a solution that has a density of
1.84 g/ml and contains 98 g H2SO4 by mass. What is the
molarity of this acid?
Solution :
Calculate the number of moles of H2SO4 in 1L of concentrated by ;
Volume of Mass of Mass of Moles of
solution solution H2SO4 H2SO4
(1L)
The mass of 1 ml of solution based on density is 1.84 g; the mass of 1L solution is;
Wt solution = (1000 mL)(1.84 g solution) = 1.84 x 103 g
1.0 mL solution
There are 98 g of H2SO4 mass of solution, because the solution is 98% H2SO4 by
mass, so the mass of H2SO4 can be calculated
Wt H SO =1.84 x 103 g solution X (98 g H2SO4 ) = 1.81 x 103 g H SO 2 4
2 4
(100 g solution)
The number of moles of H2SO4 in 1L of the solution to obtain molarity
nH SO = 1.81 x 103 g H2SO4 X 1 mole H2SO4 = 18.5 moles H2SO4
2 4

98 g H2SO4
M =
moles H2SO4 = 18.5 moles H2SO4 = 18.5 moles/L = 18.5 M
Liter solution
1.0 Liter solution
 Dilution 8
• A dilution is required if…
– you have a solution in stock and
– wish to make a solution of less concentration.
– Simply add the correct amount of water.
• Since:

moles solute
M
L solution
• Then: M x V = moles of solute
 Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less
concentrated solution from a more concentrated
solution.

Dilution
Add Solvent

Moles of solute = Moles of solute

before dilution (i) after dilution (f)
M iV i = MfVf
• In a dilution will the moles of solute change?
• No
• So, since M x V= moles

M1 V1 = M2 V2
• You may use %W/V concentration units as well

This is the dilution formula,

DO NOT USE IT FOR ANYTHING ELSE!
Dilution
 How would you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.2 M
HNO3 from a stock solution of 4.00 M HNO3?
MiVi = MfVf

Mi = 4.00 Mf = 0.200 Vf = 0.06 L Vi = ? L

MfVf 0.200 x 0.06

Vi = = = 0.003 L = 3 mL
Mi 4.00
3 mL of acid + 57 mL of water
= 60 mL of solution
1. Calculate the molarity of a solution made by
diluting 25.0 mL of 6.0 M HCl with enough water
to make 500 mL of solution.

answer : 0.30 M
2. Calculate amount of 6.0 M HCl needed to make
1.0 L of 0.10 M HCl.

answer : 16.7 ml
3. How many mL of water must be added to 15.0
mL of 6.0 M HCl to produce a 1.0 M solution?
Assume volumes are additive.

answer : 75 ml Water
 Mole fraction, (X)
The ratio of the number of moles (n) of a given component to
the total number of moles of all components of a solution.
Xsolute = nsolute nsolute
=

nsolute + nsolvent nsolution

However,
Xsolute + Xsolvent = 1
Xsolute = 1- Xsolvent Xsolvent = 1- Xsolute
nsolute = Weight solute
GMWsolute
; nsolvent = Weight solvent
GMWsolvent
A solution was prepared by dissolving 10 g of NaBr in 50 g of
water. Calculate the mole fraction of each component.
Solution :
Given : wt. NaBr = 10 g GMW NaBr = 103 g = solute
wt. H2O = 50 g GMW H2O = 18 g = solvent

nNaBr 10 grams = 0.10 mole

n NaBr =
Weight NaBr
GMW NaBr
=
103 grams

nH O =
Weight H2O nH O =
50 grams = 2.78 mole
2
GMW H2O
2
18 grams
nNaBr XNaBr = 0.10 = 0.03

XNaBr = nNaBr + nH O
2
0.10 + 2.78
2.78
nH O
2
XH O = 0.10 + 2.78
XH2O = nNaBr + nH O 2

= 2.78 = 0.97
2

XNaBr + XH O = 1
2 2.88
0.03 + 0.97 = 1 X NaBr = 0.03 moles
XH2O = 0.97 moles
• Molality (m) = moles of solute per kg or
1000 grams of solvent.

moles solute
Molality 
kg solvent

• Note: the denominator is in kg solvent,

not in kg solution.
Calculate the molality of a solution made by dissolving 5 g
of sodium carbonate in 250 g H2O.
Solution : answer : 0.19 molal
Formula for sodium carbonate: Na2CO3 = 106 g
Given : wt. Na2CO3 = 5 g = solute
wt. H2O = 250 g = 0.250 kg = solvent
GMW Na2CO3 = 106 g
wt. solute(mole/GMW solute)
Molality 
moles solute m =

kg solvent (Kg solvent)

m = 5 g (1 mole/106 g )
(0.25Kg)
0.0472moles
m =0.25 kg = 0.19 molal
A hydrochloric acid solution containing
500 g of HCl per liter solution has a
density of 1.30 g/mL, calculate the
1. molality
2. %mass
3. XHCl
4. XH2O
5. Molarity