The Electrical energy in modern times

Electrical Energy
• fundamental ingredient of modern society
• impacts on social and economic development of nations.
• indicator - industrial development
• parallels GDP growth.
• measure of social development
• per capita consumption is clear indication of the standard of living

Electricity
modern societies totally dependent upon
a favorite form at consumer end,
With its versatility and controllability, instant availability and consumer-end-cleanliness
domestic use extends far beyond the lights
usage is even broader in the commercial and industrial domains
lighting,
air conditioning,
motors applications: lifts, cranes, mills, pumps, compressors, lathes, machine tools etc
Advantages of electrical energy

• Electrical energy is the most refined form of energy.

• Electricity has become an indispensable, multipurpose form of energy.
• Some of important advantages over other forms of energy are:
• It can be generated in large quantities at comparable cost with other types of energy.
• It can be conveniently transmitted over long distances.
• It is received instantly after the switching of supply system.
• It offers consumer-end-cleanliness.
• It can be utilized economically and efficiently in domestic, commercial and industrial
processes requiring energy.
• It has got maximum flexibility and controllability.
• Conversion of electrical to mechanical energy and vice versa can be done efficiently and
economically.
• Because of above advantages the mechanical energy available from a non-electrical prime
mover is first converted into electrical energy by a generator and back to mechanical energy
by an electric motor.

• Electrical link
between the non-electrical prime mover and the load offers possibility of flexible control
characteristics. Consequently, the load requirements are fully met.
e.g. in diesel-electric locomotive and ship

• Electricity is not susceptible to being stored or inventoried.

• Electricity must be generated as it is consumed. Thus electric systems are dynamic and highly
complex.

• Carrying electric power from place of origin to place of consumption calls for transmission
grids and distribution networks.
History of Technological aspects
• 1870 - The first electric light systems installed consisted of dynamos that fed the arc lamps

• 1880 - Thomas Edison discovered the incandescent light bulb

• 1882 - Edison’s first generator driven by a steam turbine located on Pearl Street in lower Manhattan,
- fed a direct current at 100V to 80 W bulbs in residential buildings on the Wall Street.
- shortly London’s 60 kW Holborn Viaduct station was commissioned, generated 100 V dc.
(This local generation and distribution scheme was quickly adopted for lighting, in many urban and rural
communities worldwide.)

• 1883-1884 - invention of the transformer in France

- conveniently raise the voltage to reduce line losses and voltage drops in long lines.
- single phase electric current was first transmitted at a voltage of 18kV.

• August 24, 1891 - 3-ph current was first transmitted from the hydroelectric power station at Lauffen to the
International Exposition at Frankfurt, 175 km away.

• 1891 - Swiss engineer Charles Brown and Walter Bovery founded the Brown-Bovery Company
- designed 3-ph AC generator and oil-immersed transformer used in the station.

• 1990 - IEEE agreed to take August 24, 1891 as the date marking the beginning of the industrial
use and transmission of alternating current.

• Whole hosts of individual systems sprang up under private or public initiative,

– primarily to provide urban lighting and,
– to drive electric motors for many different purposes.
Electric power system structure
• The Electric supply industry is usually a very heavily capitalized sector of activity
• Like other industry, the organization of the electricity industry is divided into
– generating plant;
– transmission; (high voltage grid, distribution, the low-voltage network);
– consumption
– protection and control systems

• System configuration and structure are as depicted in Figures 1 and 2.

Three important differences between the electricity supply industry and the usual business
enterprise
• the electricity supply authority has an obligation to serve all those who apply for service

• it does not have direct competition,

• it is subjected to government regulations

• Generate electricity at voltages of several kilovolts, typically from 6 to 20 kV

• Transform power to voltages: 132, 220, 400, 500 and 700 kV

• Substation: interconnection of transmission lines at a communication node

• Regional grids are spun out from the s/s at a lower voltage, 132, 66 kV to feed distribution
networks,

• Distribution network
- brings electric power to consumers at less hazardous voltages,
- adapted to consumer needs: 20000, 15000, 6600, 380, or 220 V.
- the lower the voltage, the smaller the power capacity.
- highly energy-intensive business connect directly into the high-voltage grid
(iron and steel plants and mills, aluminium plants, railways, etc)
- major consumers e.g. large factories receive power at a somewhat lower
voltage
- small consumers like households, retailers, small factories are connected to the
low-voltage network

• Generating stations with a very small output feed their electric power directly into the
distribution network instead of connecting the high-voltage grid.
Uses of Electrical energy can be classified mainly in three categories
– Domestic use of electrical energy
– Commercial use of electrical energy
– Industrial use of electrical energy

Domestic use of electrical energy

I. Lighting xii. Iron
II. Space heating xiii. Floor polishers
III. Airconditioner xiv. Hair drier
IV. Handtools xv. Shaver
V. Water heating xvi. Sewing m/c
vii. Television, radio, xvii. Aquariums
DVD xviii. Miscellaneous
viii. Fans electronics
ix. Vaccum cleaner
x. Washing m/c Figure 3
xi. Dishwashing
• The typical arrangement of domestic supply is shown in Figure 3.
• There should be a CB or a linked switch with fuse on each live conductor of the supply mains.
• Generally for load < 50 kVA, supply voltage may be LV - 240/415 V,
> 50 kVA and above, voltage of 11 kV or higher is advantageous.
< 4 kW is generally 1-ph supply
> 4 kW is 3-ph
 Commercial use of electrical energy
i. Lighting x. Lift
ii. Space heating xi. Pumps
iii. Airconditioner xii. Fans
iv. Water heating xvi. Shopping mall
v. Ventilation motors xv. Office
vi. Refrigeration buildings xvi.
vii. Floor polishers Public buildings
viii. Computer, printer, Facsimile xvii. Auditorium
ix. Vaccum cleaner

• In commercial installations,
- lights, fans and 5 A socket on common sub-circuit (< 10 points)
Figure 4
- The load of such circuit is generally restricted to 800 W.
- the number of fans in the sub-circuit should not exceed ten.
- Power sub-circuits are designed according to the load,
- not more than two 15 A socket outlets on power sub-circuit.
- wiring length & size should be such that voltage drop in the
circuit should not exceed 3%
• The current transformers (CTs) required for metering is installed
in metering cabinet. Figure 5.
Figure 5
Figure 4
Figure 5
• The supply voltage
to consumer
depends upon the
quantum of load.

• For large load

supplies 11 kV and a
transformer is
required. Typical is
shown in Figure 6.

• The ideal location of

a substation would
be at the load
centre.
Figure 6
Industrial use of electrical energy
• Industrial complex supply is generally
- high voltage and medium voltage networks

- diverse nature of loads

(such as induction motors, induction furnaces, rolling mills, pumps, fan blowers,
compressors, material handling plants, machine tools, pumps, ventilating, air
conditioning, transport systems (such as ships, railways, elevators, and conveyors),
drives for paper machines and hot and cold rolling mills, Spinning machines and
roller table drives, hospitals, defence establishments, airports.)

- varying load like arc furnace and rolling mills are given supply at higher voltages 33 or 66 kV

- Normally fans and lights are wired on a common sub-circuit.

- Sub-circuits for power socket outlets is kept separate from fans and lights.

- The load on any low voltage sub-circuit should not exceed 3000 W ( spare provision 20%)

- Power sub-circuits are designed for not more than four outlets on each.
Studies on supply system for Industry

• carried out to investigate the unusual loads or conditions at planning

stage of industry, such as:
i. Starting requirements of large motors
ii. Arc furnace operation
iii. Welder operation
iv. Continuous process loads
(loads that must be kept in operation under all
conditions)
v. Sensitive loads such as computers, that may be affected
by voltage and frequency transients
vi. The possibility of demand limiting to reduce power cost.
The supply voltage to consumer depends upon the quantum of load.
Different classes of consumers based on supply voltage are as follows:
1. High voltage level consumer (66 kV and above)
Energy intensive Industrial consumer

2. Medium voltage level consumer

(33 kV and 11 kV)
• Industrial consumer
• Commercial consumer
• Non-commercial consumer
• Irrigation consumer
• Water supply consumer
• Transportation consumer

3. Low voltage level consumer (230/400 V)

• Domestic consumer
• Industrial consumer
• i. rural and cottage industrial consumer
• ii. small industrial consumer
• Non-commercial consumer
• Irrigation consumer
• Irrigation consumer
• Water supply consumer
• Street light consumer
• Temple/mosque/church consumer
• Temporary supply consumer
• Community retail consumer
Advantages of Electrical drive

Electrical drives are widely used because of the following advantages;

• They have flexible control characteristics.

(The steady-state and dynamic characteristics of electrical drives can be shaped to satisfy load requirements.
Availability of semiconductor converters and microcomputers have made the control characteristics even more flexible.
Speed can be controlled, electric braking can be employed.)

• They are available in wide range of torque, speed and power.

• high efficiency, low no load losses and considerable short time overloading capability.

• longer life, lower noise, lower maintenance requirements and cleaner operation

• adaptable to almost any operating conditions

• Do not pollute the environment.

• Can operate in all the four quadrants of speed-torque plane.

• Can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded

• Service Quality

• Performance of electrical device depend on the quality of the current that powers them.

• Many devices malfunction unless the voltage wave is perfectly sinusoidal and its frequency and magnitude are
constant and stable over time.

• Problems may also arise in electrical device when the supply voltage is voltage swings up or down.

• Outages, whether short or long, are clearly detrimental to service quality.

• The factors that characterize quality electricity service are set out briefly below:
– Supply interruption
(Supply interruptions may have serious consequences for consumers. The harm causes by interruption increases nonlinearly with the duration
of the outage.)
– Voltage drops
(Momentary dip in supply voltage caused by system short circuits or failures, or due to the start-up of nearby motors with high input
demand. Motors are sensitive to these drops because electromagnetic torque varies with the square of the supply voltage.)
– Voltage wave harmonics
(Deviations from the fundamental frequency of the voltage sine wave due to the saturation of ferromagnetic material, in system
transformers or generators for instance, or to the loads themselves)
– Flicker
(requency fluctuations in voltage amplitude due to certain types of loads. Arc furnaces and electronic devices with thyristors usually
cause flicker, which is detrimental to the proper operation of devices connected to the network.)
– Overvoltage
(Voltage increases caused by short circuits, faults, lightning, or any other event, potentially causing severe damage
to consumer appliances.)
Efficeint use of electrical devices
• Education
(Consumers should be educated about energy savings in respect of efficient use of lighting , motors,
motor-pump system.)

• Standard
(Use of motors and pumps sets with standard marks be made mandatory. About 75 to 80 % of energy
generated is consumed by motors.)
• Efficiency
– Motors are fairly efficient device at rated load.
– Three-phase motors are more efficient than single-phase motors
– Larger motors are more efficient than small ones.
– Over-size motors
The motors at low load conditions have a low power factor. A typical case is :
No load 0.18
25% load 0.56
50% load 0.74
75% load 0.81
100% load 0.86
– Soft starters for induction motors
– Delta to star connection
– Variable speed drives
Electric Drive

• Aggregate of electric motor, energy transmitting

mechanism and the control of equipment by which
motor characteristics are adjusted to meet the load
requirement is known as electric drive.

• The electric drive together with load is known as electric

drive system.

Source:
 Commonly available source is AC.
 In ac, source may be 1-ph or 3-ph; 50 Hz
 High rating devices are usually powered from 3-ph
 Low rating device used in household
appliances are usually powered from 1-ph source.
 3-ph self starting, 1-ph external starter is required.
Modulator:
• Converts electrical energy sources in the form suitable to the motor.
(if the source is ac and dc motor is to be used then the power
modulator
must be rectifier.)
Ac to dc (rectifier), ac to ac ( transformer, voltage regulator)
Dc to ac (inverter), dc to dc (chopper)

• Modulates flow of power from the source to motor in such a manner that
motor is imparted with speed-torque characteristics required by the load.

• It restricts currents within permissible value during transient operations such

as starting, braking and sped reversal

• Also selects the mode of operation i.e. motoring, braking, generating etc.
Control unit:
– provide control signal to the power modulator
– nature of control unit for a particular drive depends on the type of modulator
used.

Sensing unit:
– Used in feedback control system
– Sense various parameters of the motor that has to be adjusted (e.g. speed of
motor)

Motor
– Selection of motor to meet particular load, requirement depends on various
parameters such as conditions on which motor has to operate and type of load
it has to handle.

Load
– Machinery designed to accomplish a given task (e.g. fans, planner, cutting saw)