Reservoir

Shahid Ghazi
Copyright 2024 Shahid Ghazi
 Reservoir, Topseal and Trap
Lecture Layout

Reservoir types and properties

Reservoir heterogeneity
Controls on seal effectiveness
Using sequence stratigraphy predictively
Structural traps
Stratigraphic traps

All figures B/W figures after Allen and Allen (1990)

Title: reservoir model (Badley Ashton)
 The Reservoir
The term “reservoir” implies storage. Reservoir rock is rock where
hydrocarbons are stored and from which they can be produced.
The fluids of the subsurface migrate according to density. The
dominant fluids in hydrocarbon regions are hydrocarbon gas,
hydrocarbon liquids, and salt water.
Since hydrocarbons are the less dense of these fluids, they will
tend to migrate upward, displacing the heavier salt water down
elevation.
The fluids present will separate according to density as migration
occurs.
In order for a rock to be a potential reservoir rock, two properties,
porosity and permeability, must exist of sufficient magnitudes to
justify economic development of the hydrocarbon reservoir.
 The Reservoir
Reservoir rock is a rock that has sufficient porosity and
permeability to contain accumulations of oil or gas. It is a place
that oil migrates to and is held underground.

Sedimentary rocks (sandstones and limestones) are the most

common reservoir rocks because they have more porosity than
most igneous and metamorphic rocks .Secondary poro-perm
controlled by dissolution, cementation, fracturing and
recrystallisation.

In general, the thickness of a reservoir rock should not be less

than 3m or 10 ft.
 The Reservoir

Main controls on reservoir potential are porosity and permeability.

Influenced by the depositional pore geometries of the reservoir
sediment and post-depositional diagenetic changes that take place.
Primary porosity and permeability controlled by grain-size, sorting
and packing.
Secondary poro-perm controlled by dissolution, cementation,
fracturing and recrystallisation.
Reservoirs are heterogeneous on a number of scales.
Reservoir porosity determines the reserve prospect of the play.
Reservoir permeability determines rate at which petroleum may be
drawn out of the reservoir.
 Porosity
Porosity of a rock is a measure of its ability to hold a
fluid.
Mathematically, porosity is calculated as:
Ø % = (volume of voids/total volume of rock)*100
The porosity of a reservoir rock must not be below 5 %.
There are four
types of porosity in the reservoirs:
1) Poor porosity (5-10 %)
2) Medium porosity (10-15 %)
3) Good porosity (15-20 %)
4) Very good porosity (20-25 %
 Porosity
Total porosity
Total porosity = effective porosity + ineffective porosity
1) Effective porosity (also called open porosity)
It is the pore volume in a rock that contributes to
permeability in a reservoir. It leads to fluid flow in a
reservoir. It does not include isolated pores and volume of
pores occupied by water consumed by clay minerals
and other grains. It represents the pore space which
contains non-clay water and hydrocarbons.
2) Ineffective porosity (also called closed porosity)
Refers to the fraction of the total volume in which fluids or
gases are present but in which fluid flow can not effectively
take place and includes the closed pores.
ROCK MATRIX AND PORE SPACE

Rock matrix Pore space

Note different use of “matrix”
by geologists and engineers
 POROSITY DEFINITION

Porosity: The fraction of a rock that is

occupied by pores
• Porosity is an intensive property describing the fluid storage
capacity of rock

Vb  Vma Vp
Porosity    
Vb Vb
ROCK MATRIX AND PORE SPACE

Rock matrix Water Oil and/or gas

 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
IGNEOU SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
S
Rock-forming Source of

Rocks under high

material

Molten materials in Weathering and

temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust

Recrystallization due to
process

Crystallization Sedimentation, burial

heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Clastics

•Carbonates

•Evaporites
CLASTIC AND CARBONATE ROCKS
Clastic Rocks
Consist Primarily of Silicate Minerals

Are Classified on the Basis of:

- Grain Size
- Mineral Composition

Carbonate Rocks
Consist Primarily of Carbonate Minerals
(i.e. Minerals With a CO3-2 Anion Group)
Limestone - Predominately Calcite (Calcium
Carbonate, CaCO3)
Dolomite - Predominately Dolostone (Calcium
Magnesium Carbonate, CaMg(CO3)2 )
SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES,
Relative Abundances
Sandstone
and conglomerate
(clastic)
~11%

Limestone and
dolomite
Siltstone ~14%
and shale
(clastic)
~75%
 Comparison of Compositions of Clastic
and Carbonate Rocks
Clastic Rocks Carbonate Rocks
Fossils
Sand Quartz Allochemical Pelloids
Feldspar Grains Oolites
Grains Intractlasts
Rock Fragments

Average Average
Sandstone Sparry
Average Limestone
Mudrock Average
(Shale) Micritic
Limestone

Clay Chemical Microcrystalline Chemical

Matrix Cement Matrix Cement
Calcite Calcite
Illite Quartz
Kaolinite Calcite
Smectite Hematite
Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments
Name Millimeters Micrometers
4,096
Boulder 256
Cobble 64
Pebble 4
Granule 2
Very Coarse Sand 1
Coarse Sand 0.5 500
Medium Sand 0.25 250
Fine Sand 0.125 125
Very Fine Sand 62
0.062
Coarse Silt 0.031 31
Medium Silt 0.016 16
Fine Silt 0.008 8
Very Fine Silt 0.004 4
Clay (modified from Blatt, 1982)
 Average Detrital Mineral Composition
of Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale Sandstone
Clay Minerals 60 (%) 5 (%)

Quartz 30 65

Feldspar 4 10-15

Rock Fragments <5 15

Carbonate 3 <1

Organic Matter, <3 <1

Hematite, and
Other Minerals (modified from Blatt, 1982)
 SANDSTONE CLASSIFICATION
Quartz + Chert
5
Quartzarenite
5

Subarkose Sublitharenite
25 25

Lithic
Subarkose

50 50

Lit
se

ha
ko

ren
Ar

ite
25 Lithic 25
Felspathic
Arkose Litharenite

Unstable
Rock
Feldspar 10 25 50 25 10
Fragments
(modified from McBride, 1963)
FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
SANDSTONE

Framework
Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
Matrix
Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material
Cement
Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,
During Burial. Cements Fill Pores and
Replace Framework Grains
Pores
Voids Among the Above Components
 FOUR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE
Geologist’s Classification

1. Framework Note different use of “matrix”

2. Matrix Engineering
“matrix” by geologists and engineers
3. Cement
4. Pores

PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT (QUARTZ) MATRIX

FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)

0.25 mm
Porosity in Sandstone reservoirs
 Permeability (K)
The permeability of a rock is a measure of the resistance to
the flow of a fluid through a rock. If it takes a lot of pressure to
squeeze fluid through a rock, that rock has low permeability. If
fluid passes through the rock easily, it has high permeability.
The permeability of a rock depends on effective porosity and
capillary pressure.
* We determine the permeability of a rock using Darcy's
Law: Q = (-K(P1-P2)A)/(µL)
Where:
K = Permeability
Q = Rate of flow
P1-P2 = Pressure drop across the sample
A = Cross-sectional area of the sample
L = Length of the sample
µ = Viscosity of the fluid
 Sandstone reservoirs
Poro-perm characteristics easier to predict (more dependent on
primary grain geometries).
Average wet-packed porosities: 28% for v poorly sorted sand to
42% for very well sorted sand.
Permeability decreases as grains become smaller and sorting
becomes poorer.
Grain sphericity and angularity and sample skewness also exert a
control.
Shape fabric also controls directional permeability – e.g. cross
bedding orientation.
Diagenetic overprinting will modify primary porosities and
permeabilities.
Growth of authigenic clay minerals in pore spaces reduced porosity.
 Carbonate reservoirs

Heterogeneities dependent on environment of deposition &

subsequent diagenetic modification.
Main porosity types are vugs, intergranular, intragranular, chalky.
Burial commonly results in fracture porosity, generated by
brecciation, faulting and jointing.
Dolomotisation may improve or reduce porosity.
Dissolution due to migrating fluids improves porosity.
Cements decrease both porosity and permeability.
Intercrystalline fabrics make best reservoirs due to interconnected
grains (good permeability).
Conversely highly porous vuggy facies may make poor reservoir due
to low permeability.
Carbonate rimmed shelf model
Rimmed shelf model reservoir properties
Carbonate rimmed shelf – Reservoir potential

Model derived from well data in the Shu-aiba Formation, Arabian Gulf.
Blue = restricted marine - seal, Orange = Rudist barrier – good reservoir,
Green = open marine -seal.
Scales of reservoir heterogeneity
Scales of reservoir heterogeneity
 The regional topseal

The existence of a petroleum play depends on the presence of an

effective regional caprock or topseal.
The main driving force causing the fluids to migrate is buoyancy due
usually to:
> an upward decrease in pressure towards the surface,
> the density contrast between petroleum fluids and water.
The main restrictive force to the movement of petroleum fluids is
capillary pressure.
The seal potential or capacity of a caprock can be expressed as the
maximum petroleum column height that it will support without
leakage.
Seal effectiveness
Caprock lithology
Most caprocks are non-
permeable clays and shales
or salts (halite, gypsum,
anhydrite).
‘Tight’ sandstone and
limestones may locally also
form caprocks.
40% of recoverable reserves in
giant oil fields capped by
evaporites.
60% of recoverable reserves in
giant oil fields capped by
shales.
Similar values for giant gas
fields are 34% evaporite
capped, 66% shale capped.
Ductility of caprocks
Ductile cap rocks less prone to
faulting and fracturing.
Cap rocks placed under
substantial stress during
structural trap formation.
Ductile caprocks essential in
highly deformed areas (e.g.
fold and thrust belts).
Evaporites highly ductile.
High kerogen content may
enhance shale ductility.
Ductility commonly increases with
burial depth.
Caprock thickness and lateral seal continuity
Thin caprocks may be strong enough to support a large petroleum
column.
However, thin caprocks tend to be laterally inpersistent.
Thicker caprocks have greater chance of maintaining seal integrity
over entire prospect.
Typical caprock thicknesses range from 10-100 m.
Example: Burgan Field Kuwait. 30 m thick shale caprock seals 74
billion barrels of oil.

In order to maintain regional seals, caprocks need to maintain stable

lithological character.
Lateral variability may be studied using wireline log, core data or
seismostratigraphic analysis.
 Caprock burial depths
48% of World’s
recoverable oil
reserves lie in 1000-
2000 m depth
range.
31% of World’s
recoverable oil
reserves lie in 2000-
3000 m depth
range.
USA – 50% of
recoverable oil
reserves at less
than 1000 m.
Australia – 72% of recoverable oil reserves at greater than 3000 m.
Conclusion: Seals are effective at a wide variety of depths.
Maximum attained depth of caprock burial may determine seal effectiveness.
 Hydrocarbon traps on ramp margins

After van Wagoner et al (1990)

A stratigraphic unit is not a caprock unless it seals an underlying

reservoir unit.
Transgressive marine shales commonly overlie shallow marine
shoreface facies following a relative sea level rise – these may
form an excellent seal.
The TST is therefore an excellent time for seal rock deposition.
 Hydrocarbon traps on faulted margins

After van Wagoner et al (1990)

The landward part of the TST may be

characterised by sand dominated deposition
which may act as a high permeability ‘thief zone’
through which hydrocarbons might escape.
Example of TST seal: Telisa Formation, Sumatra
seals 12 billion barrels of oil.
 Trap terminology

A trap exists where subsurface conditions cause

the concentration and accumulation of petroleum.
 Contractional fold traps
Found in areas
undergoing
tectonic
compression.
Example: Zagros
Mountains, Iran.
Example: Wyoming
thrust belt, USA.
Inversion anticlines are
result of reversal
along formerly
extensional faults.
Fold structure needs 4-
way closure.
Above: Water saturation in a folded reservoir unit.
Contractional fault traps

Traps may develop

in hangingwall
or footwall of
fault.
Depend on
juxtaposition of
sealing
lithologies to
create trap.
Need to have
closure in 3D.
May have limited or
unlimited
closure.
Extensional fault traps

Extensional tilted
fault blocks
(e.g. Statfjord).
Closure dependent
on
juxtaposition of
seal rocks.
Sealing also
requires that
faults
themselves
don’t leak -
often secured
by fault gouge.
Modelling extensional fault traps
Rollover trap structures
Compactional
traps

Drape anticlines
caused by
differential
compaction.
Presence of elevated
horst blocks may
result in deposition
of varying
thicknesses of
overlying sediment.
Salt diapir traps
Result from post-
depositional
movement of salt or
overpressured clay.
At depths in excess of
600-1000 m buried
salt is less dense
than overburden and
tries to escape
upwards due to its
buoyancy.
Diapirism can fold
previously
undeformed adjacent
beds into trap
structures.
Salt dome itself can act
as a trap.
Unconformity trap structures - Statfjord

Trap forms by truncation of underlying

reservoir unit.
Supra-unconformity traps where
reservoir forms localised infill of
topography and is then overlain by
a seal.
 Stratigraphic
traps (pinchout)

Pinchout of porous
reservoir unit
laterally due to
original
depositional
architecture.
May be extensive but
of very low dip.
Parasequences
commonly form
this type of trap.
Depositional strat traps on 3D seismic
Identifying strat
traps on 3D
seismic

Seismic amplitude
horizontal slice.
Sandy braided channels
(reservoir) = low
amplitude (blue).
Mud and silt overbank
areas = high amplitude
(red).
Unayzah reservoir,
Middle East.
 Conclusions

Porosity and permeability are the main controls on

reservoir quality.
Different elements within carbonate and siliciclastic
environments can act as reservoir and seal.
Buoyancy and capillary pressure determine seal
effectiveness.
Structural traps occur where seal is juxtaposed against
reservoir to forma trap post-depositionally.
Stratigraphic traps juxtapose seal and reservoir to form a
trap at the time of deposition.