Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unit-4

Bridges
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Contents 1. DC Bridges
1. Wheat stone bridge
2. Kelvin’s Bridge
2. AC Bridges
1. Measurement of inductance
1. Maxwell’s bridge
2. Anderson bridge.
2. Measurement of capacitance
1. Schearing Bridge
2. Wien Bridge
3. Errors and precautions in using bridges

Reference:
Electronic Instrumentation, second edition - [Link], Tata McGraw Hill, 2004.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Contents 4. Q-meter
Principle of operation
Measurement methods
and Sources of Errors.
5. Counters
Principle of Operation, Modes of Operation
1. Totalizing mode
2. Frequency mode
3. Time period mode
Sources of Errors.

TEXTBOOKS :
Electronic Instrumentation, second edition - [Link], Tata McGraw Hill, 2004.
 Unit-4
YouTube Video links (EMI:Unit-4)
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI)

Topic Title YouTube Link

1 EMI401 - Bridges & WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE [Link]

2 EMI402 - Unbalanced & Slightly Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge [Link]

3 EMI403 - KELVIN’S BRIDGE (Measurement of Low Resistance) [Link]

4 EMI404 - AC Bridges, Capacitance & Inductance Comparison Bridges [Link]

5 EMI405 - Maxwell’s Bridge [Link]

6 EMI406 : HAY’S Bridge [Link]

7 EMI407 - SCHERING’S Bridge [Link]

8 EMI408 - WIEN’S Bridge [Link]

9 EMI409 - ANDERSON Bridge [Link]

EMI410 - Review of AC Bridges, Comparison of A.C. and D.C.
10 [Link]
Bridges, Precautions in using Bridges
11 EMI411 - Q-Meter [Link]
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Bridges - Introduction A
I1 I2
R1 R2
+

G
- I3 I4
R3 R4

B
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Bridges - Introduction I1 I2
R1 R2

G
I3 I4

R3 R4

A bridge circuit in its simplest form

consists of a network of four resistance arms
forming a closed circuit, with a dc source of
current applied to two opposite junctions and a
current detector connected to the other two
junctions.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Bridges - Introduction
• Bridge circuits are extensively used for measuring
component values such as R, L and C.
• Since the bridge circuit merely compares the value of an
unknown component with that of an accurately known
component (a standard), its measurement accuracy can be
very high.
• This is because the readout of this comparison is based on
the null indication at bridge balance, and is essentially
independent of the characteristics of the null detector.
• The measurement accuracy is therefore directly related to
the accuracy of the bridge component and not to that of the
null indicator used.
• The basic dc bridge is used for accurate measurement of
resistance and is called Wheatstone’s bridge.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Types of Bridges
D.C. Bridges A.C. Bridges
Wheatstone Bridge Maxwell’s Bridge
Kelvin Bridge Hay’s Bridge
Anderson Bridge
Schering Bridge
Wien Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Types of Bridges (Based on R,L,C)

Wheatstone Bridge
Resistance
Kelvin Bridge
Maxwell’s Bridge
Types of Inductance Hay’s Bridge
Bridges
Anderson Bridge
Schering Bridge
Capacitance
Wien Bridge
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unit-3
Oscilloscope

D.C. BRIDGES
(Measurement Of Resistance)
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Definition of DC Bridge
• The DC Bridge is used for measuring the
unknown electrical resistance.
• This can be done by balancing the two legs
of the bridge circuit.
• The value of one of the arm is known while
the other of them is unknown.
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE
(Measurement Of Resistance)
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Wheatstone’s Bridge (Measurement Of Resistance)

A
I2
I1
SW1 R1 R2

G
I4
E I3 R3
R4

• Wheatstone’s bridge is the most accurate

method available for measuring resistances
and is popular for laboratory use
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
A
I1 I2

Wheatstone’s Bridge
SW1 R2
R1

G
E I3 I4
R3
R4

• The source of emf and switch is connected to points A and

B, while a sensitive current indicating meter, the
galvanometer, is connected to points C and D.
• The galvanometer is a sensitive microammeter, with a
zero center scale. When there is no current through the
meter, the galvanometer pointer rests at 0, i.e. mid scale.
• Current in one direction causes the pointer to defl ect on
one side and current in the opposite direction to the other
side.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
A
I1 I2

Wheatstone’s Bridge
SW1 R2
R1

G
E I3 I4
R3
R4

• When SW1 is closed, current flows and divides into

the two arms at point A, i.e. I1 and I2. The bridge is
balanced when there is no current through the
galvanometer, or when the potential difference at
points C and D is equal, i.e. the potential across the
galvanometer is zero.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Wheatstone’s Bridge
A
I1 I2
SW1 R2
R1

G
E I3 I4
R3
R4

B
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Wheatstone’s Bridge • To obtain the bridge balance equation, we have from the Fig.

I1R1=I2R2 (4.1)

• For the galvanometer current to be zero, the following

conditions should be satisfied.

• Substituting in eq.

• This is equation for the bridge to be balanced.

Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
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Sensitivity of a Wheatstone Bridge

• When the bridge is in an unbalanced condition, current flows
through the galvanometer, causing a deflection of its pointer.
• The amount of deflection is a function of the sensitivity of the
galvanometer. Sensitivity can be thought of as deflection per
unit current.
• A more sensitive galvanometer deflects by a greater amount
for the same current.
• Deflection may be expressed in linear or angular units of
measure, and sensitivity can be expressed in units of
S = mm/μA or degree/ μ A or radians/ μA.
• Therefore it follows that the total deflection D is D = S X I,
where S is defined above and I is the current in microamperes.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge

• To determine the amount of deflection that would result for

a particular degree of unbalance, general circuit analysis can
be applied, but we shall use Thevenin’s theorem.
• Since we are interested in determining the current through
the galvanometer, we wish to fi nd the Thévenin’s
equivalent, as seen by the galvanometer.
• Thévenin’s equivalent voltage is found by disconnecting the
galvanometer from the bridge circuit, as shown in Fig., and
determining the opencircuit voltage between terminals a and
b.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unbalanced
Wheatstone’s Bridge

• Thévenin’s equivalent resistance can be determined

by replacing the voltage source E with its internal
impedance or otherwise short-circuited and
calculating the resistance looking into terminals a and
b. Since the internal resistance is assumed to be very
low, we treat it as 0 W. Thévenin’s equivalent
resistance circuit is shown in Fig.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unbalanced
Wheatstone’s Bridge
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Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge

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Slightly Unbalanced
Wheatstone’s Bridge
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Slightly Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge

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Slightly Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Applications of Wheatstone’s Bridge

• A Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure the DC
resistance of various types of wire, either for the
purpose of quality control of the wire itself, or of
some assembly in which it is used. For example, the
resistance of motor windings, transformers, solenoids,
and relay coils can be measured.
• Wheatstone’s bridge is also used extensively by
telephone companies and others to locate cable faults.
The fault may be two lines shorted together, or a
single line shorted to ground.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Limitations of Wheatstone’s Bridge

• For low resistance measurement, the resistance of
the leads and contacts becomes significant and
introduces an error. This can be eliminated by
Kelvin’s Double bridge.
• For high resistance measurements, the resistance
presented by the bridge becomes so large that the
galvanometer is insensitive to imbalance.
Therefore, a power supply has to replace the battery
and a dc VTVM replaces the galvanometer. In the
case of high resistance measurements in mega
ohms, the Wheatstones bridge cannot be used.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Limitations of Wheatstone’s Bridge

• Another difficulty in Wheatstone’s bridge is the
change in resistance of the bridge arms due to the
heating effect of current through the resistance.
The rise in temperature causes a change in the
value of the resistance, and excessive current may
cause a permanent change in value.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Wheatstone’s Bridge - Review

• Balanced Wheatstone’s Bridge & Problems

• Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge & Problems

• Application of Wheatstone’s Bridge

• Limitations of Wheatstone’s Bridge

Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unit-4
Bridges

KELVIN’S BRIDGE
(Measurement of Low Resistance)
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

KELVIN’S BRIDGE
• When the resistance to be measured is of
the order of magnitude of bridge contact
and lead resistance, a modified form of
Wheatstone’s bridge, the Kelvin bridge is
employed.
• Kelvin’s bridge is a modification of
Wheatstone’s bridge and is used to
measure values of resistance below 1 Ω.
• In low resistance measurement, the
resistance of the leads connecting the
unknown resistance to the terminal of the
bridge circuit may affect the
measurement.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

KELVIN’S BRIDGE
• Consider the circuit in Fig.,
where Ry represents the
resistance of the connecting
leads from R3 to Rx (unknown
resistance).
• The galvanometer can be
connected either to point c or to
point a.
• When it is connected to point a,
the resistance Ry, of the
connecting lead is added to the
unknown resistance Rx, resulting
in too high indication for Rx.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

KELVIN’S BRIDGE
• When the connection is made to
point c, Ry is added to the bridge
arm R3 and resulting measurement
of Rx is lower than the actual value,
because now the actual value of R3
is higher than its nominal value by
the resistance Ry.
• If the galvanometer is connected to
point b, in between points c and a, in
such a way that the ratio of the
resistance from c to b and that from
a to b equals the ratio of resistances
R1 and R2, then
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

KELVIN’S BRIDGE
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Practical
KELVIN’S
Double Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Practical KELVIN’S DOUBLE BRIDGE

• A commercial Kelvin’s bridge capable of measuring
resistances from 10 – 0.00001 Ω.
• Contact potential drops in the circuit may cause large
errors.
• This effect is reduced by varying a standard resistance
consisting of nine steps of 0.001 Ω each, plus a
calibrated manganin bar of 0.0011 Ω with a sliding
contact.
• When both contacts are switched to select the suitable
value of standard resistance, the voltage drop between
the ratio arm connection points is changed, but the total
resistance around the battery circuit is unchanged.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Practical KELVIN’S DOUBLE BRIDGE

• This arrangement places any contact resistance in series
with the relatively high resistance value of the ratio
arms, rendering the contact resistance effect negligible.
• The ratio R1/R2 is selected (as given in Fig.) such that
a relatively large part of the standard resistance is used
and hence Rx is determined to the largest possible
number of significant figures. Therefore, measurement
accuracy improves.
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unit-4
Bridges

A.C. BRIDGES
(Measurement Of Inductance of Capacitance)
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

DC Bridge AC Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Definition of AC Bridge
• The AC bridge consists source, balanced detector,
and the four arms.
• The arms of the bridge consist the impedance.
• The AC bridge is constructed by replacing the
battery with the ac source.
• AC bridges are formed by replacing the DC battery
with the AC source.
• The bridge is used for detecting the inductance,
capacitance, storage factor, dissipation factor etc.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

AC BRIDGES
• The bridge is excited by an AC source rather than DC
and the galvanometer is replaced by a detector, such as
a pair of headphones, for detecting AC. When the
bridge is balanced,

Where Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of the

arms, and are vector complex quantities that possess
phase angles.
It is thus necessary to adjust both the magnitude and
phase angles of the impedance arms to achieve balance,
i.e. the bridge must be balanced for both the reactance
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

AC Bridges
• Capacitance Comparison Bridge
• Inductance Comparison Bridge
• MAXWELL’S Bridge
• HAY’S Bridge
• SCHERING’S Bridge
• WIEN’S Bridge
• ANDERSON Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

AC Bridges
• Capacitance Comparison Bridge
• Inductance Comparison Bridge
• MAXWELL’S Bridge
• HAY’S Bridge
• SCHERING’S Bridge
• WIEN’S Bridge
• ANDERSON Bridge
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Capacitance
Comparison
Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Capacitance Comparison Bridge

Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

AC Bridges
• Capacitance Comparison Bridge
• Inductance Comparison Bridge
• MAXWELL’S Bridge
• HAY’S Bridge
• SCHERING’S Bridge
• WIEN’S Bridge
• ANDERSON Bridge
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

2. Inductance Comparison Bridge

• In this bridge R2 is chosen as the inductive balance

control and R3 as the resistance balance control. (It is
advisable to use a fixed resistance ratio and variable
standards).
• Balance is obtained by alternately varying L3 or R3. If
the Q of the unknown reactance is greater than the
standard Q, it is necessary to place a variable resistance
in series with the unknown reactance to obtain balance.
• If the unknown inductance has a high Q, it is permissible
to vary the resistance ratio when a variable standard
inductor is not available.
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
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Unit-4
Bridges

MAXWELL’S Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

AC Bridges
• Capacitance Comparison Bridge
• Inductance Comparison Bridge
• MAXWELL’S Bridge
• HAY’S Bridge
• SCHERING’S Bridge
• WIEN’S Bridge
• ANDERSON Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Review of AC Bridges
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Maxwell’s Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Maxwell’s Bridge

• Maxwell’s bridge, shown in Fig., measures an unknown

inductance in terms of a known capacitor.
• The use of standard arm offers the advantage of
compactness and easy shielding.
• The capacitor is almost a loss-less component.
• One arm has a resistance R1 in parallel with C1, and
hence it is easier to write the balance equation using the
admittance of arm 1 instead of the impedance.
• The general equation for bridge balance is
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Maxwell’s Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Maxwell’s Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Maxwell’s Bridge
• Maxwell’s bridge is limited to the measurement of low Q
values (1 – 10).
• The measurement is independent of the excitation
frequency. The scale of the resistance can be calibrated to
read inductance directly.
• The Maxwell bridge using a fixed capacitor has the
disadvantage that there is an interaction between the
resistance and reactance balances.
• This can be avoided by varying the capacitances, instead
of R2 and R3, to obtain a reactance balance.
• However, the bridge can be made to read directly in Q.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Maxwell’s Bridge
• The bridge is particularly suited for inductances
measurements, since comparison with a capacitor
is more ideal than with another inductance.
• Commercial bridges measure from 1 – 1000 H,
with ± 2% error. (If the Q is very large, R1
becomes excessively large and it is impractical to
obtain a satisfactory variable standard resistance
in the range of values required).
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
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Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unit-4
Bridges

HAY’S Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

AC Bridges
• Capacitance Comparison Bridge
• Inductance Comparison Bridge
• MAXWELL’S Bridge
• HAY’S Bridge
• SCHERING’S Bridge
• WIEN’S Bridge
• ANDERSON Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Review of AC Bridges
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

HAY’S BRIDGE
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

HAY’S BRIDGE

• The Hay bridge, shown in Fig., differs from

Maxwell’s bridge by having a resistance R1 in series
with a standard capacitor C1 instead of a parallel.
• For large phase angles, R1 needs to be low; therefore,
this bridge is more convenient for measuring high-Q
coils. For Q = 10, the error is ± 1%, and for Q = 30,
the error is ± 0.1%.
• Hence Hay’s bridge is preferred for coils with a high
Q, and Maxwell’s bridge for coils with a low Q.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

HAY’S BRIDGE

1
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

HAY’S BRIDGE

2
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

HAY’S
Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

HAY’S
Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

HAY’S
Bridge
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unit-4
Bridges

SCHERING’S Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

AC Bridges
• Capacitance Comparison Bridge
• Inductance Comparison Bridge
• MAXWELL’S Bridge
• HAY’S Bridge
• SCHERING’S Bridge
• WIEN’S Bridge
• ANDERSON Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Review of AC Bridges
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

SCHERING’S Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

SCHERING’S Bridge
• A very important bridge used for the precision
measurement of capacitors and their insulating
properties is the Schering bridge. Its basic circuit
arrangement is given in Fig. 11.26.
• The standard capacitor C3 is a high quality mica
capacitor (low-loss) for general measurements, or an
air capacitor (having a very stable value and a very
small electric fi eld) for insulation measurement.
• For balance, the general equation is
Z1 Zx = Z2 Z3
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

SCHERING’S Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

SCHERING’S Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

SCHERING’S Bridge
• D indicates the quality of the capacitor.
• Commercial units measure from 100 pf – 1 mf, with ±
2% accuracy. The dial of C3 is graduated in terms of
direct readings for Cx, if the resistance ratio is
maintained at a fixed value.
• This bridge is widely used for testing small capacitors
at low voltages with very high precision.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

SCHERING’S Bridge
• The lower junction of the bridge is grounded. At the
frequency normally used on this bridge, the
reactances of capacitor C3 and Cx are much higher
than the resistances of R1 and R2.
• Hence, most of the voltage drops across C3 and Cx,
and very little across R1 and R2. Hence if the
junction of R1 and R2 is grounded, the detector is
effectively at ground potential. This reduces any
stray-capacitance effect, and makes the bridge more
stable
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unit-4
Bridges

WIEN’S Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

AC Bridges
• Capacitance Comparison Bridge
• Inductance Comparison Bridge
• MAXWELL’S Bridge
• HAY’S Bridge
• SCHERING’S Bridge
• WIEN’S Bridge
• ANDERSON Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Review of AC Bridges

Hay’s Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
The Wien bridge is a type of bridge circuit that
WIEN’S Bridge was developed by Max Wien in 1891.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

WIEN’S Bridge

• The Wien bridge shown in Fig. has a series RC

combination in one arm and a parallel combination in the
adjoining arm.
• Wien’s bridge in its basic form, is designed to measure
frequency. It can also be used for the measurement of an
unknown capacitor with great accuracy.
• The impedance of one arm is
Z1 = R1 – j/wC1.
• The admittance of the parallel arm is
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

WIEN’S Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

WIEN’S Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

WIEN’S Bridge
• The audio range is normally divided into 20 – 200 – 2 k – 20
kHz ranges.
• In this case, the resistances can be used for range changing and
capacitors C1 and C3 for fine frequency control within the
range.
• The bridge can also be used for measuring capacitances. In
that case, the frequency of operation must be known.
• The bridge is also used in a harmonic distortion analyzer, as a
Notch filter, and in audio frequency and radio frequency
oscillators as a frequency determining element.
• An accuracy of 0.5% – 1% can be readily obtained using this
bridge. Because it is frequency sensitive, it is difficult to
balance unless the waveform of the applied voltage is purely
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

WIEN’S Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

WIEN’S
Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

WIEN’S
Bridge
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unit-4
Bridges

ANDERSON Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

AC Bridges
• Capacitance Comparison Bridge
• Inductance Comparison Bridge
• MAXWELL’S Bridge
• HAY’S Bridge
• SCHERING’S Bridge
• WIEN’S Bridge
• ANDERSON Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Review of AC Bridges

Hay’s Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

ANDERSON Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

1 𝑹𝟏𝟐 𝑹𝟑𝟏
𝑹 𝟏=
𝑹𝟏𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐𝟑 + 𝑹𝟑𝟏
R13 R12 R1
𝑹𝟏𝟐 𝑹𝟐𝟑
R3 𝑹 𝟐=
R2 𝑹𝟏𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐𝟑 + 𝑹𝟑𝟏
3 2
R32 𝑹𝟑𝟏 𝑹𝟐𝟑
𝑹 𝟑=
𝑹𝟏𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐𝟑 + 𝑹𝟑𝟏
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

ANDERSON Bridge

• The balance condition for this bridge can be easily

obtained by converting the mesh impedances C, R3, R5
to an equivalent star with the star point 0 as shown in
Fig (b) by using star/delta transformation.
• As per delta to star transformation
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

ANDERSON Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

ANDERSON Bridge
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unit-4
Bridges

Review of AC Bridges
Comparison of A.C. and D.C. Bridges
Errors and Precautions in using Bridges
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Review of AC Bridges

Anderson
Bridge

Hay’s Bridge
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Comparison of A.C. and D.C. Bridges

Basis for
[Link]. AC Bridge DC Bridge
Comparison
The bridge which is used for measuring the value The DC bridge measures the
1 Definition of unknown impedance is known as the AC bridge. unknown resistance of the circuit.
2 Supply AC supply is used DC supply is used
3 Current Detector AC Detector DC Detector
4 Components Resistive and Reactive Resistive
Wagner’s
5 Earthing Device Required Not Required
6 Types 7 2
7 Balancing Time Relatively Less High
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unit-4
Bridges

Errors and Precautions in

using Bridges
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Errors and Precautions in using Bridges

• Assuming that a suitable method of
measurement has been selected and that the
source and detector are given, there are
some precautions which must be observed
to obtain accurate readings.
• The leads should be carefully laid out in
such a way that no loops or long lengths
enclosing magnetic flux are produced, with
consequent stray inductance errors.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Errors and Precautions in using Bridges

• With a large L, the self-capacitance of the leads is more
important than their inductance, so they should be
spaced relatively far apart.
• In measuring a capacitor, it is important to keep the
lead capacitance as low as possible. For this reason the
leads should not be too close together and should be
made of fine wire.
• In very precise inductive and capacitances
measurements, leads are encased in metal tubes to
shield them from mutual electromagnetic action and are
used or designed to completely shield the bridge.
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unit-4

Q-Meter
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Q METER
Q-meter is an instrument designed for
measuring Quality factor (Q) of a coil as well as
for the measurement of inductance, capacitance,
and resistance of an electric circuit at radio-
frequency. Q-meter is also known as RLC meter.
The quality factor or Q factor is a
dimensionless parameter that describes how
underdamped an oscillator or resonator is.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Q METER
• The overall efficiency of coils and capacitors
intended for RF applications is best evaluated using
the Q value.
• The Q meter is an instrument designed to measure
some electrical properties of coils and capacitors.
• The principle of the Q meter is based on series
resonance; the voltage drop across the coil or
capacitor is Q times the applied voltage (where Q is
the ratio of reactance to resistance, XL/R).
• If a fixed voltage is applied to the circuit, a
voltmeter across the capacitor can be calibrated to
read Q directly.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Q METER
• At resonance XL = XC and EL = [Link], EC = [Link], E = I.R
where
E — applied voltage EC — capacitor voltage
EL — inductive voltage XL — inductive reactance
XC — capacitive reactance R — coil resistance
I — circuit current

From the above equation, if E is kept constant the voltage

across the capacitor can be measured by a voltmeter calibrated
to read directly in terms of Q.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Q METER
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Q METER
• The wide range oscillator, with frequency range
from 50 kHz to 50 MHz, delivers current to a
resistance Rsh having a value of 0.02 Ω.
• This shunt resistance introduces almost no resistance
into the tank circuit and therefore represents a
voltage source of a magnitude e with a small
internal resistance.
• The voltage across the shunt is measured with a
thermocouple meter.
• The voltage across the capacitor is measured by an
electronic voltmeter corresponding to Ec and
calibrated directly to read Q.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Q METER
• The oscillator energy is coupled to the tank circuit.
The circuit is tuned to resonance by varying C until
the electronic voltmeter reads the maximum value.
• The resonance output voltage E, corresponding to
Ec, is E = Q X e, that is, Q = E/e. Since e is known,
the electronic voltmeter can be calibrated to read Q
directly.
• The inductance of the coil can be determined by
connecting it to the test terminals of the instrument.
• The circuit is tuned to resonance by varying either
the capacitance or the oscillator frequency.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Q METER
• If the capacitance is varied, the oscillator frequency is
adjusted to a given frequency and resonance is obtained.
• If the capacitance is pre-setted to a desired value, the
oscillator frequency is varied until resonance occurs.
• The Q reading on the output meter must be multiplied by
the index setting or the “Multiply Q by” switch to obtain
the actual Q value.
• The inductance of the coil can be calculated from known
values of the coil frequency and resonating capacitor (C).
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Q METER
• The Q indicated is not the actual Q, because the
losses of the resonating capacitor, voltmeter and
inserted resistance are all included in the
measuring circuit.
• The actual Q of the measured coil is somewhat
greater than the indicated Q.
• This difference is negligible except where the
resistance of the coil is relatively small compared
to the inserted resistance Rsh.
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Unit-4

Counters
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Electronic Counters
• Electronic counters find many applications in
research and development laboratories, in standard
laboratories, on service benches and in everyday
operations of many electronics installations.
• Counters are used in communication to measure
the carrier frequency, in a digital system to
measure the clock frequency, and so on.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Electronic Counters
• Principle of Operation, Modes of Operation
1. Totalizing mode
2. Frequency mode
3. Time period mode
• Sources of Errors.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Introduction - Decade Counter

• A decade counter is a circuit of flip-flops (F/Fs) in cascade, which
counts in the base 10 (decimal number system). This means that there
is a sequence of ten distinct counts in increasing order
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Modes of Counters
• Typical modes of operation are
1. Totalizing mode
2. Frequency mode
3. Time period mode
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Totalizing mode
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Totalizing mode

• The input pulses are counted (totalised) by the

decade counter as long as the switch is closed.
• If the count pulse exceeds the capacity of the
decade counter, the overflow indicator is
activated and the counter starts counting again.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Frequency mode Counter

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Frequency mode
Counter

• If the time interval in which the pulses are being totalised is

accurately controlled, the counter operates in the frequency
mode.
• Accurate control of the time interval is achieved by applying a
rectangular pulse of known duration to the AND gate, in place of
the dc voltage source.
• This technique is referred to as gating the counter.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Frequency mode
Counter

• The frequency of the input signal is computed as

f = frequency of the input signal

N = pulse counted
T= duration of the gate pulse
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Time period mode Counter

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Time period mode Counter

• In some applications, it is desirable to measure the

period of the signal rather than its frequency.
• Since the period is the reciprocal of the frequency, it
can easily be measured by using the input signal as a
gating pulse and counting the clock pulses.
• The period of the input signal is determined from the
number of pulses of known frequency or known time
duration which are counted by the counter during one
cycle of the input signal.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Time period mode Counter

• The period is computed as

• The frequency of the input signal is computed as

f = frequency of the clock

N = pulse counted
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Time Interval mode Counter

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-4

Time Interval mode Counter

• The time interval mode of operation measures the

time elapsed between two events.
• The gate is controlled by two independent inputs, the
start input, which enables the gate, and the stop input
which disables it.
• During the time interval between the start and stop
signal, clock pulses accumulate in the register, thus
providing an indication of the time interval between
the start and stop of the event.