Chapter 5
Analog
Transmission
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chapter 5: Outline
5.1 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
5.2 ANALOG-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Chapter 5: Objective
The first section discusses digital-to-analog conversion. The
section shows how we can change digital data to an analog
signal when a band-pass channel is available. The first method
described is called amplitude shift keying (ASK), in which the
amplitude of a carrier is changed using the digital data. The
second method described is called frequency shift keying (FSK),
in which the frequency of a carrier is changed using the digital
data. The third method described is called phase shift keying
(PSK), in which the phase of a carrier signal is changed to
represent digital data. The fourth method described is called
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), in which both
amplitude and phase of a carrier signal are changed to represent
digital data.
Chapter 5: Objective (continued)
The second section discusses analog-to-analog conversion. The
section shows how we can change an analog signal to a new
analog signal with a smaller bandwidth. The conversion is used
when only a band-pass channel is available. The first method is
called amplitude modulation (AM), in which the amplitude of a
carrier is changed based on the changes in the original analog
signal. The second method is called frequency modulation (FM),
in which the frequency of a carrier is changed based on the
changes in the original analog signal. The third method is called
phase modulation (PM), in which the phase of a carrier signal is
changed to show the changes in the original signal.
5-1 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of
changing one of the characteristics of an
analog signal based on the information in
digital data. Figure 5.1 shows the relationship
between the digital information, the digital-to-
analog modulating process, and the resultant
analog signal.
5.5
Figure 5.1: Digital-to-analog conversion
5.6
Figure 5.2: Types of digital to analog conversion
5.7
5.5.1 Aspects of Conversion
Before we discuss specific methods of digital-to-
analog modulation, two basic issues must be
reviewed: bit and baud rates and the carrier signal.
5.8
Example 5.1
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If 1000
signal elements are sent per second, find the bit rate.
Solution
In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown. We can find
the value of N from
5.9
Example 5.2
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate
of 1000 baud. How many data elements are carried by each
signal element? How many signal elements do we need?
Solution
In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L are
unknown. We first find the value of r and then the value of
L.
5.10
5.5.2 Amplitude Shift Keying
In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied to create signal elements.
Both frequency and phase remain constant while the
amplitude changes.
5.11
Figure 5.3: Binary amplitude shift keying
5.12
Figure 5.4: Implementation of binary ASK
5.13
Example 5.3
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans
from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the
bit rate if we modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1?
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This
means that our carrier frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz. We
can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate (with d
= 1 and r = 1).
5.14
Example 5.4
In data communications, we normally use full-duplex links
with communication in both directions. We need to divide
the bandwidth into two with two carrier frequencies, as
shown in Figure 5.5. The figure shows the positions of two
carrier frequencies and the bandwidths. The available
bandwidth for each direction is now 50 kHz, which leaves
us with a data rate of 25 kbps in each direction.
5.15
Figure 5.5: Bandwidth of a full-duplex ASK in Example 5.4
5.16
5.5.3 Frequency Shift Keying
In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the
carrier signal is varied to represent data. The
frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the
duration of one signal element, but changes for the
next signal element if the data element changes.
Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for
all signal elements.
5.17
Figure 5.6: Binary frequency shift keying
5.18
Example 5.5
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans
from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency
and the bit rate if we modulated our data by using FSK with
d = 1?
Solution
This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we are
modulating by using FSK. The midpoint of the band is at
250 kHz. We choose 2Δf to be 50 kHz; this means
5.19
Figure 5.7: Implementation of BFSK
5.20
Example 5.6
We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3 Mbps.
The carrier frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the number of
levels (different frequencies), the baud rate, and the
bandwidth.
Solution
We can have L = 23 = 8. The baud rate is S = 3 MHz/3 = 1
Mbaud. This means that the carrier frequencies must be 1
MHz apart (2Δf = 1 MHz). The bandwidth is B = 8 × 1 = 8
MHz. Figure 5.8 shows the allocation of frequencies and
bandwidth.
5.21
Figure 5.8: Bandwidth of MFSK used in Example 5.6
5.22
5.5.4 Phase Shift Keying
In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is
varied to represent two or more different signal
elements. Both peak amplitude and frequency
remain constant as the phase changes. Today, PSK
is more common than ASK or FSK. However, we
will see shortly that QAM, which combines ASK and
PSK, is the dominant method of digital-to-analog
modulation.
5.23
Figure 5.9: Binary phase shift keying
5.24
Figure 5.10: Implementation of BASK
5.25
Figure 5.11: QPSK and its implementation
5.26
Example 5.7
Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12 Mbps for
QPSK. The value of d = 0.
Solution
For QPSK, 2 bits are carried by one signal element. This
means that r = 2. So the signal rate (baud rate) is S = N ×
(1/r) = 6 Mbaud. With a value of d = 0, we have B = S = 6
MHz.
5.27
Figure 5.12: Concept of a constellation diagram
5.28
Example 5.8
Show the constellation diagrams for ASK (OOK), BPSK,
and QPSK signals.
Solution
Figure 5.13 shows the three constellation diagrams. Let us
analyze each case separately:
5.29
Figure 5.13: Three constellation diagrams
5.30
5.5.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
PSK is limited by the ability of the equipment to
distinguish small differences in phase. This factor
limits its potential bit rate. So far, we have been
altering only one of the three characteristics of a
sine wave at a time; but what if we alter two? Why
not combine ASK and PSK? The idea of using two
carriers, one in-phase and the other quadrature,
with different amplitude levels for each carrier is the
concept behind quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM).
5.31
The possible variations of QAM are
numerous
Figure 5.14 shows some of these schemes.
Figure 5.14a shows the simplest 4-QAM scheme (four different
signal element types) using a unipolar NRZ signal to modulate
each carrier.
This is the same mechanism we used for ASK (OOK). Part b
shows another 4-QAM using polar NRZ, but this is exactly the
same as QPSK.
Part c shows another QAM-4 in which we used a signal with
two positive levels to modulate each of the two carriers.
Finally, Figure 5.14d shows a 16-QAM constellation of a signal
with eight levels, four positive and four negative.
5.32
Figure 5.14: Constellation diagrams for some QAMs
5.33
5-2 ANALOG-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Analog-to-analog conversion, or analog
modulation, is the representation of analog
information by an analog signal. One may ask
why we need to modulate an analog signal; it is
already analog. Modulation is needed if the
medium is bandpass in nature or if only a
bandpass channel is available to us. Analog-to-
analog conversion can be accomplished in
three ways: AM FM and PM.
5.34
Figure 5.15: Types of analog-to-analog modulation
5.35
5.2.1 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated
so that its amplitude varies with the changing
amplitudes of the modulating signal. The frequency
and phase of the carrier remain the same; only the
amplitude changes to follow variations in the
information. Figure 5.16 shows how this concept
works. The modulating signal is the envelope of the
carrier. As Figure 5.16 shows, AM is normally
implemented by using a simple multiplier because
the amplitude of the carrier signal needs to be
changed according to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
5.36
Figure 5.16: Amplitude modulation
5.37
Figure 5.17: AM band allocation
5.38
5.2.2 Frequency Modulation (FM)
In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier
signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage
level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak
amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain
constant, but as the amplitude of the information
signal changes, the frequency of the carrier changes
correspondingly. Figure 5.18 shows the
relationships of the modulating signal, the carrier
signal, and the resultant FM signal.
5.39
Figure 5.18: Frequency modulation
5.40
Figure 5.19: FM band allocation
5.41
5.2.3 Phase Modulation (PM)
In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal
is modulated to follow the changing voltage level
(amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak
amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal
remain constant, but as the amplitude of the
information signal changes, the phase of the carrier
changes correspondingly.
5.42
Figure 5.20: Phase modulation
VCO
d/dt
BPM = 2(1 + b )B
0
fc
5.43