Chapter-One

Introduction to Database
Systems

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Outline
 1.1 Overview
 1.2 Needs of databases
 1.3 File-based approach Vs. Database approach
 1.4 Limitations of file-based systems
 1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of database
systems
 1.6 Roles of people in database environment
 1.7 The ANSI-SPARC database architecture

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1.1 Overview

 Database
A shared collection of logically related data, and
a description of this data, designed to meet the
information needs of an organization.

 Note the uses of the phrases:-

• Shared collection
• Logically related
• Description of data

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 Database System
It is a system which has the following
components
 Database,
 Database Management System,
• DBMS is a software that enables users to define,
create, maintain, and control access to the
database
 Hardware.
 People having roles to play in the database
environment, and
 Some application programs
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Database System: Overview

 Assuming AAUSC uses a Database

System to handle student records how do

Instructors enter grades?

Students register for courses?
Students get information on their academic
performance?
Queries are processed?

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 1.2 Needs of databases
 Database and Database Systems have become an
essential component of everyday life in modern society
 It is fair to say that databases play a critical role in
almost all areas where computers are used
 Some examples
 Depositing or withdrawing money from a bank
 Making airline reservation
 Accessing a computerized library catalog to search for books
 Purchasing an item from a supermarket
 Booking a holiday at the travel agent
 Purchasing using your credit card
 Using the Internet
 All these may involve accessing databases
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 Database Applications:

Banking: all transactions

Airlines: reservations, schedules
Universities: registration, grades
Sales: customers, products, purchases
Manufacturing: production, inventory,
orders, supply chain
Human resources: employee records,
salaries, tax deductions
 Databases touch all aspects of our lives

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 Data has no meaning and hence not helpful,
information is useful to make decisions and
control and coordinate activities
 Data is input to Information System and
information is output from the system.

 Example:
The numbers 18, 20, 23, 20, 25, 25, 28 can be
considered as data. But if you are told that these
are the highest temperature recordings during the
first week of the month of June, 2007, at Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia; it becomes information.

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1.3 File-based approach Vs. Database approach

 File based systems were an early attempt to

computerize manual systems.

 This approach is a decentralized computerized data

handling method - it develops a program or a number of
programs for each different application.

 Since every application defines and manages its own

data, the system is subjected to serious data duplication
problem

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Example: Three file processing systems at Company A

Duplicate
Data

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1.4 Limitations of file-based systems

 Data Redundancy (Duplication of data)

 Same data is held by different programs
 Wasted space (Uncontrolled duplication of data)

 Separation and isolation of data

 Each program maintains its own set of data. Users
of one program may be unaware of potentially
useful data held by other programs.
 Limited data sharing

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Limitations of File-Based systems (Cont.)

• Data Inconsistency and confusion

There are potentially different values and/or different
formats for the same item

• Program - Data dependence

File structure is defined in the program code and is
dependent on the application programming
language.

Each application program must have its own

processing routines for reading, inserting, updating
and deleting data

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Limitations of File Based Systems (Cont.)

 Incompatible file formats (Lack of Data

Sharing and Availability)
Programs are written in different languages, and
so cannot easily access each others files.
 E.g. personnel writes in C++
finance writes in COBOL

 Poor Security and administration

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Limitations of File-Based systems (Cont.)

Update Anomalies

 Modification Anomalies: A problem experienced when

one or more data value is modified on one application
program but not on others containing the same data set.

 Deletion Anomalies: A problem encountered where one

record set is deleted from one application but remain
untouched in other application programs

 Insertion Anomalies: A problem experienced whenever

there is a new data item to be recorded, and the
recording is not made in all the applications
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File based approaches

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1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of database
systems

– The Database approach was taken to overcome

the limitations of the File-based systems.
In this approach
A database is maintained.
A DBMS provides all the required services.
• Note: A DBMS is a software system that enables
users to define, create, maintain, and control access
to the database. More on this in the next chapter.

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Benefits of Database systems
 Data can be shared: two or more users can access and use
same data instead of storing data in redundant manner for
each user

 Improved data accessibility: By using structured query

languages, the users can easily access data without programming
experience.

 Redundancy can be reduced : Isolated data is integrated in

database to decrease the redundant data stored at different
applications.

 Quality data can be maintained : the different integrity

constraints in the database approach will maintain the quality leading
to better decision making.

 Inconsistency can be avoided : controlled data redundancy will

avoid inconsistency of the data in the database.
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Benefits …
 Integrity can be maintained : Data at different applications
will be integrated together with additional constraints to
facilitate shared data resource

 Security measures can be enforced : the shared data can

be secured by having different levels of clearance and
other data security mechanisms.

 Standards can be enforced: the different ways of using

and dealing with data by different units of the
organization can be balanced and standardized by using
database approach.

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Benefits …
 Less Labour: Unlike the other data handling methods,
data maintenance will not demand much resource

 Centralized information control : Since relevant data in the

organization will be stored at one repository, it can be
controlled and managed at the central level.

 Data Independence - Applications insulated from how

data is structured and stored

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Limitations of database approach
 Introduction of new professional and specialized
personnel

to be incurred to develop and maintain

 High cost
the system

and recovery services from the

 Complex backup
users perspective

 High impact on the system when failure occurs to

the central system

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1.6 Roles of people in database environment
 Data administrator
 Responsible for
 Management of data resources
 Database planning
 Development of standards
 Policies and procedures
 Consulting users
 Database administrator (more technical)
 Responsible for
 The physical design and implementation of databases
 Security and integrity control
 Maintenance
 Satisfactory performance

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Roles of people …
 Database Designers
 Logical Designers
 Concerned with identifying the data, entities and attributes,
relationships and constraints
 Need a complete knowledge of the organization's data and
business rules
 Physical Designers
 Decide how the logical database designer is to be physically
realized
 Map the logical database design into a set of tables
 Select specific storage structures and access methods
 Design security measures

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Roles of people …
 Application Developers
 Application programs provide the required functionality
for the end user.

 Work based on the requirement specified by the system

analyst.

 Each program contains statements that request the

DBMS to perform some operation on the database –
retrieving, inserting, updating and deleting data.

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Roles of people …
 End Users
 End users require access to the database for querying,
updating, and generating reports; the database primarily exists
for their use.

 They are differentiated by the way they expect to interact with

the system.
 Naive Users
• Unaware of the DBMS and the DB
• Depend on the simplicity of the GUI
• (E.g.. Bank tellers, clerical staff)

 Sophisticated Users
• Familiar with the structure of the database and the facilities of the
DBMS
• May use high-level query languages (SQL) to perform the required
operation
• May even write application program for their own use

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1.7 The ANSI-SPARC database architecture

Database Architecture
 The American National Standards Institute/
Standards Planning and Requirements
Committee (ANSI-SPARC) introduced the three-
level architecture of the database based on their
degree of abstraction.

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 Levels of Abstraction - (Three level
ANSI_SPARC architecture )

 We have three distinct levels of data abstraction

at which data items can be described.

 The levels form a three level architecture comprising an

 an external,
 a conceptual and
 an internal level.

 The objective of the three-level architecture is to separate

each users' view of the database from the way it is
physically represented.

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 External level :
The users’ view of the database. This level
describes part of the database that is relevant to
each user.
 Each user has a view of the real world represented in a
form that is familiar for that user. For example, one user
may view dates in the form (day, month, year), while
another may view dates as (year, month, day), some
views may include derived or calculated data. That is,
data not actually stored in the database,

 Entities, attributes or relationships that are not of interest

to the users may still be represented in the database, but
the users will be unaware of them.
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Conceptual level :

 the community view of the database. This level

describes what data is stored in the database
and the relationships among the data.

 Conceptual level is the middle level. It is a

complete view of the data requirements of the
organization.

 Any data available to a user must be contained

in, or derivable from conceptual level

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Internal level :
 the physical representation of the
database on the computer. This level
describes how the data is stored in the
database.

 The internal level is concerned with such things as:

 Storage space allocation for data
 Record description for storage
 Record placement

 The way the DBMS and OS perceive the

data is the internal level.
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 External level

Sno. fname lname age Sal.

Staff_no. lname [Link].

Staff_no. fname lname DOB Sal. Br. No.

Conceptual level

Struct STAFF{
Int staff_no;
Internal level Char fname[15];
Char lname[15];
Struct date date_of_birth;
Flooat sal;
Struct staff *next
};

Difference between the three levels 30