Unit # 1

Syllabus

Machine Elements: Cams: Types of cams and followers

Introduction to engineering materials-Metals, ceramics, composites-Heat
treatment of metals
Riveted joints- methods of failure of riveted joints-strength equations-efficiency of
riveted joints - eccentrically loaded riveted joints.
Cams and Followers
• Cam and follower is a mechanical kinematic link that coverts rotary motion of cam to linear motion of follower.
Cam and follower are a pair of higher links that can be used to move links periodically or immediately.

Cams

Follower

Cam

Followers (valves)
What is Cam?
• The cam is a rotating part that provides reciprocating or oscillating motion to the follower by
direct contact. This part is essentially used to change the movement from the rotary to linear.

Types of Cam
1. According to the shape of the cam According to the follower movement of the cam
a) Wedge or flat cam 1. Rise return rise
b) Disk or Plate cam 2. Dwell rise dwell return dwell
c) Spiral cam 3. Dwell rise return dwell
d) Cylindrical cam
e) Heart-shaped cam
f) Translating cam According to the manner of the constraint of the follower
g) Snail drop cam 1. Preloaded spring cam
h) Conjugate cam 2. Gravity cam
i) Globoidal cam 3. Positive drive cam
j) Spherical cam
1. Wedge or Flat Cam
The wedge or flat cam has a straight shape to provide a specific
movement of the followers.
2. Disc or Plate Cam
In radial cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a
direction perpendicular to the cam axis.
3. Cylindrical cam.
In cylindrical cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a
direction parallel to the cam axis. The follower rides in a groove
at its cylindrical surface.
4. Spiral Cam
In spiral cam, it consists of a semi-circular or a spiral shape groove
contour, the cam travels in a reciprocating movement and the follower
moves perpendicular to the axis of the cam.
5. Snail Drop Cam
The snail drop cam is used for example in a mechanical timekeeping
clocking-in clock so that the daytime advance system could run at
exactly midnight and involve a follower for more than 24 hours by the
cam in a spiral path. Which ended with a sharp cut-off. The follower
will drop down and activate the day advance.
What is Follower?
• The follower is a rotating or oscillating element of a machine that follows the movement of the cam by
direct contact. When a cam travels in reciprocating movement, the follower moves parallel on the cam
axis.

Types of Follower
A. According to the shape of the follower C. According to the line of movement of the
1. Roller follower follower
2. Knife edge follower 1. Radial follower
3. Flat-faced follower 2. Offset Follower
4. Spherical follower
B. According to the movement of the follower
1. Reciprocating follower
2. Oscillating follower
1. Roller Follower
The roller follower is essentially used in high-speed operations
because it holds a smooth contact with the surface. It has less
wear and tear than the other followers.

2. Knife Edge Follower

In these types of followers, It is consists of a sharp area of contact
with the cam. It is the simplest among all followers and as such
followers are not employed in case of fast application, as it has a
sharp edge.

3. Flat-faced Follower
The flat-faced follower seems like a flat surface with an irregular
cam. In this, the cam is utilized when space is limited and this
follower can hold more thrust. This follower can also be applied
in a specific application.

4. Spherical Follower
The spherical follower consists of a curved or regular follower as
well as a cam. This is a modification of a flat-faced follower.
5. Reciprocating Follower
In this type of follower, as the cam rotates, the follower
reciprocates or changes into the guide.

6. Oscillating Follower
The oscillating follower is placed at a proper point on the
frame and oscillates thus the cam causes the rotary
motion.

7. Radial Follower
The radial follower is used when the line of movement of
the follower passes through the center of rotation of the
camshaft. It is in a reciprocating motion.

8. Offset Follower
The offset follower is used when the line of motion of the
follower is offset from the center of rotation of the
camshaft.
Introduction to Engineering Materials
• Engineering materials refers to the group of materials that are used in the construction of manmade
structures and components.

• The primary function of an engineering material is to withstand applied loading without breaking and
without exhibiting excessive deflection.

• The major classifications of engineering materials include

1. metals

2. polymers

3. ceramics and

4. composites
Metals
• Metals are natural compounds of earth’s crust, in which they are generally found in the form of metal
ores, associated both with each other and with many other elements.

• Metals can be:

1. Ferrous Metals

2. Non Ferrous metals

Physical Properties of Metals
• Metals are lustrous, malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity. Other properties
include:
• State: Metals are solids at room temperature with the exception of mercury
• Luster: Metals have the quality of reflecting light from their surface and can be polished e.g., gold,
silver and copper.
• Malleability: Metals can be made into thin sheets known as foils. For example, gold sheet, silver sheet
etc.
• Ductility: Metals can be drawn into wires. For example, 100 g of silver can be drawn into a thin wire
about 200 meters long.
• Hardness All metals are hard except sodium and potassium, which are soft and can be cut with a knife.
• Conduction: Metals are good conductors because they have free electrons. Silver and copper are the
two best conductors of heat and electricity.
• Density: Metals have high density and are very heavy.
• Melting and Boiling Points: Metals have high melting and boiling points. Tungsten has the highest
melting and boiling points whereas mercury has the lowest. Sodium and potassium also have low
melting points.
Ceramics
• Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently oxides,
nitrides, and carbides.

• Examples-aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2),silicon carbide (SiC),
silicon nitride (Si3N4).
• Examples of traditional ceramics — clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), cement, and glass.

Properties
• Relatively stiff and strong—stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the metals ,
• Very hard
• extremely brittle (lack ductility)
• Thermal and electrical Properties- Insulative to the passage of heat and electricity low
electrical conductivities and are more resistant to high temperatures
• Optical characteristics-Ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque.
Composites
• A composite material is a combination of two materials with different physical and chemical properties.
When they are combined they create a material which is specialized to do a certain job, for instance to
become stronger, lighter or resistant to electricity.

• A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the categories
discussed above—viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers.
Objective-to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single material.

• Examples
• Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)

• Plastic molding compounds containing fillers

• Rubber mixed with carbon black

Properties of Composite materials:
• The tensile strength of composite materials is 4-6 times higher than conventional materials such as
steel, aluminum, etc.

• They have better torsion and stiffness properties.

• It has a high fatigue endurance limit (ultimate tensile strength of up to 60%).

• They are 30–45% lighter than aluminum structures designed for the same functional requirements.

• Also has low embedded energy.

• Composites make less noise during operation and provide less vibration.

• Composite materials are additional versatile.

Advantages of composite materials:
[Link] are light in weight and have low density.
[Link] has high creep resistance.
[Link]-to-weight is greater than in steel or aluminum.
[Link] properties are higher than normal engineering metals.
[Link] cannot corrode like steel.
Disadvantages of composite materials:

[Link] has an excessive price for raw materials and manufacture.

[Link] are extra brittle than wrought metals, thus they get additionally damaged.
[Link] transverse properties are also weak.
[Link] and disposal of composite material will be difficult.
Heat treatment
• Heat treatment is a process to control the mechanical properties of engineering materials by heating,
cooling and alloying the metal as per requirement.

• It deals with change in properties by alloying different elements to the metal at various temperatures.

• The various mechanical properties such as hardness, toughness, ductility, machinability, and grain
refinement are controlled by heat treatment process.

• basic heat treatment processes:

• Hardening

• Normalizing

• Annealing

• Tempering
Annealing (Furnace Cooling)
• The purposes of annealing are:

(a) to soften the metal for easy machining,

(b) to remove internal stress caused by working,

(c) to increase ductility, to refine grain size, and

(d) To modify electrical and magnetic properties.

• Process Annealing: This is a process of heating the metal below or very close to lower critical temperature, i.e.,
650oC for steel and slow cooling to form new grain structure. The purposes of the process are: (a) to increase the
ductility of cold worked metal and (b) to remove internal stress. This is frequently used in wire drawing to increase
the plasticity of the metal.

• Full Annealing: The purposes of full annealing are: (a) to soften the steel, (b) to refine grain structure above the
upper critical limit by 20 to 30°C for 0.9% C-steel and by the same amount below the critical point for high carbon
steel.
Normalizing (Air Cooling)
• Normalizing is a process of heating about 30 to 50oC above higher critical point for the time duration of 15 minutes
and cooling in still air.

• The purposes of the process normalizing are: (a) to reduce the grain size of steel, (b) to remove the internal stress
caused by working, and (c) to improve some of the mechanical properties.

Hardening (Liquid Cooling)

• The purposes of hardening are:

(a) to harden the steel to resist wear,

(b) to enable it to cut other metal.

• The metal is heated 30–50°C above the upper critical temperature for hypoeutectoid steel and above the same
amount above the lower critical temperature for hypereutectoid steel. It is left in liquid for soaking.
Tempering
• Tempering, is a process of improving the characteristics of a metal, especially steel, by heating it to a high
temperature, though below the melting point, then cooling it, usually in air.

• The process improves toughness by reducing brittleness and internal stresses.

• Suitable temperatures for tempering vary considerably, depending on the type of steel and designed application;

• The purposes of tempering are:

(a) to reduce some amount of hardness produced during hardening and increase the ductility and

(b) to remove strain produced during heating.

1. Low-temperature Tempering: Steel is heated to 150–250°C and cooled down.

2. Medium-temperature Tempering: Steel is heated to 350–450°C and cooled down.

3. High-temperature Tempering: Steel is heated to 500–600°C and cooled down.

 Riveted joints
• A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with a head integral to it. The cylindrical portion of the rivet is
called shank or body and lower portion of shank is known as tail.

• The rivets are used to make permanent fastening between the plates such as in structural work,
ship building, bridges, tanks and boiler shells. The riveted joints are widely used for joining
light metals.

Types of Riveted Joints

1. Lap joint, and
2. Butt joint.
Lap Joint
A lap joint is that in which one plate overlaps the other and the two
plates are then riveted together.
Butt Joint
A butt joint is that in which the main plates are kept in alignment
butting (i.e. touching) each other and a cover plate (i.e. strap) is placed
either on one side or on both sides of the main plates.
Butt joints are of the following types:
1. Single Row Single Strap Butt Joint
2. Single Row Double Strap Butt Joint
3. Double Row Double Strap Butt Joint.

Single Row Single Strap Butt Joint

• When one row of rivets and one strap are used on both the sheets to
be joined, it is called a single row single strap butt joint.
Single Row Double Strap Butt Joint
• If one row of rivets and two straps are used on both the sheets to be
joined, then it is called a single row double strap butt joint.
Double Row Double Strap Butt Joint
• If two rows of rivets and two straps are used on both the sheets to be
joined, then it is called a double row double strap butt joint.
Terminology of riveted joints
• The following terms are used in the terminology of riveted joints:
(i) Pitch (p) The pitch of the rivet is defined as the distance between the
center of one rivet to the center of the adjacent rivet in the same row.
Usually, p = 3d where d is shank diameter of the rivet.
(ii) Margin (m) The margin is the distance between the edge of the plate
to the centerline of rivets in the nearest row. Usually,
m = 1.5d
(iii) Transverse Pitch (pb) Transverse pitch, also called back pitch or row
pitch, is the distance between two consecutive rows of rivets in the same
pb = 0.8p (for chain riveting)
plate. Usually,

(iv) Diagonal Pitch (pd) Diagonal pitch is the distance between the
center of one rivet to the center of the adjacent rivet located in the adjacent
Failures of a Riveted Joint
According to conventional theory, the failure of the riveted joint may occur in any one or more of the following
ways:
1. Tearing of the plate at an edge.
2. Tearing of the plate across a row of rivets.
3. shear failure of the rivet
4. crushing failure of the plate.

1. Tearing of the plate at an edge.

• A joint may fail due to tearing of the plate at an edge as shown in Figure.

• This can be avoided by keeping the margin, m = 1.5d, where d is the

diameter of the rivet hole.
2. Tearing of the plate across a row of rivets.
• Due to the tensile stresses in the main plates, the main plate or cover
plates may tear off across a row of rivets as shown in Fig.
• In such cases, we consider only one pitch length of the plate, since
every rivet is responsible for that much length of the plate only.
• The resistance offered by the plate against tearing is known as tearing
resistance or tearing strength or tearing value of the plate.

3. Shearing of the rivets.

The plates which are connected by the rivets exert tensile stress on the
rivets, and if the rivets are unable to resist the stress, they are sheared
off as shown in Figure.
4. Crushing of the plate or rivets.
Sometimes, the rivets do not actually shear off under the
tensile stress, but are crushed as shown in Figure.
Due to this, the rivet hole becomes of an oval shape and
hence the joint becomes loose.