Sri Ramakrishna Institute of Technology

Department of ECE

Optical Communication

Unit-1
Introduction to Optical Fibers

Prepared by
[Link], AP/ECE
 Unit- I
Introduction to Optical Fibers

Need for optical communication – Advantages

and applications – EM spectrum– system model
description – selection of system components –
Overview of Modes – Key Modal concepts –
Linearly Polarized Modes – Single Mode Fibers
– Graded Index fiber structure.
 Optical Fiber Communication
• Method of transmitting information from one
place to another by sending light through an
optical fiber. The light forms an
electromagnetic carrier wave that is
modulated to carry information.
 Optical Fiber Communication
The process of communicating using fiber-optics
involves the following basic steps:
• Creating the optical signal using a transmitter
• relaying the signal along the fiber, ensuring
that the signal does not become too distorted
or weak
• receiving the optical signal and converting it
into an electrical signal.
 OPTICAL FIBER
 An optical fiber is a long cylindrical dielectric waveguide,
usually of circular cross-section, transparent to light over
the operating wavelength.

Fiber Structure

 A single solid dielectric of two concentric layers.

 Inner layer - Core of radius ‘a’ and refractive
index „n1‟
 Outer layer – Cladding refractive index „n2‟.

n2 < n1  condition necessary for TIR

 Light Propagation through Optical Fiber

 Forlight propagation through the fiber, the conditions

for total internal reflection (TIR) should be met at
the core-cladding interface
 Optical Fiber Wave guiding
 To understandtransmission mechanisms of optical fibers
with dimensions approximating to those of a human hair;
 Necessary to consider the optical waveguiding of a
cylindrical glass fiber.

• Fiber acts as an open optical waveguide – may be

analyzed using simple ray theory – Geometric Optics
 Not sufficient when considering all types of optical fibers

 Electromagnetic Mode Theory for Complete Picture

 Total Internal Reflection
 Light entering from glass-air interface (n1>n2) - Refraction

Snell’s Law:
n1sin 1 = n2 sin 2

sin  n
or 1
 2
sin 2 n1
 2 > 1

• At 2 = 90o, refracted ray moves parallel to interface between dielectrics and

1<90o - Limiting case of refraction
Angle of incidence, 1  C ; critical angle
 Total Internal Reflection
 Value of critical angle (C ); sin C = n2/n1
 At angle of incidence greater than critical angle, the light
is reflected back into the originating dielectric medium
(TIR) with high efficiency ( 99.9%)

meridional ray

Transmission of light ray in a perfect optical fiber

 ACCEPTANCE ANGLE
 Not all rays entering the fiber core will continue to be
propagated down its length

 Only rays with sufficiently shallow grazing angle ( i.e. angle to

the
normal > C ) at the core-cladding interface are transmitted by
TIR.

 Any ray incident into fiber core at angle > a will be transmitted to
core-cladding interface at an angle < C and will not follow
TIR.
 Lost (case B)
 Acceptance Cone
 For rays to be transmitted by TIR within the fiber core, they
must be incident on the fiber core within an acceptance cone
defined by the conical half angle “a” .

 ‘a’ is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter
the fiber in order to be propagated
 Acceptance angle for the fiber
 Numerical Aperture (NA)
 A very useful parameter : measure of light collecting ability
of fiber.
 Larger the magnitude of NA, greater the amount of light accepted by
the
fiber from the external source
Acceptance / Emission Cone

NA = sin a
n2core -
=
n2claddingand 0.20- 0.50 for MMFs
• NA varies from 0.12- 0.20 for SMFs
 Classification of Optical Fibers

Classified on basis of :

 Core and Cladding materials

 Refractive index profile
 Modes of propagation
 Three Varieties:
a. Glass core and cladding (SCS: silca-clad silica)
• Low attenuation & best propagation characteristics
• Least rugged – delicate to handle

b. Glass core with plastic cladding (PCS: plastic clad silica)

• More rugged than glass; attractive to military applications
• Medium attenuation and propagation characteristics

c. Plastic core and cladding

• More flexible and more rugged
• Easy to install, better withstand stress, less expensive, weigh 60%
less than glass
• High attenuation- limited to short runs.
Refractive Index Profile: Two types

• Step Index : Refractive index makes abrupt change

• Graded Index : Refractive index is made to vary as a function
of
the radial distance from the centre of the fiber

Mode of propagations : Two types

• Single mode : Single path of light

• Multimode : Multiple paths
Step Index / Graded Index
 Single mode (mono-mode) Fibers
• SMFs: Most important for long-haul use (carrier and Internet core).
• Small core (8 to 10 microns) that forces the light to follow a
linear
single path down its length.
• Lasers are the usual light source.
• Most expensive and delicate to handle,
• Highest bandwidths (GHz) and distance ratings (more than 100 km).
 Multimode Fibers
• Relatively large diameter core (50 to 100 microns)
• Step-index multimode cable has an abrupt change between core and
cladding. It is limited to about 50 Mbits/sec
• Graded-index multimode cables has a gradual change between core
and cladding. It is limited to 1 Gbit/sec.

SI

GI
 Application Areas
 Single mode fibers: Mostly Step index type
 Ideally suited for high bandwidth, very long-haul applications
using single-mode ILD sources; Telecommunication, MANs

 Multimode fibers : Step index, Graded index

• Step Index Fibers: Best suited for short-haul, limited
bandwidth and relatively low cost applications.
• Graded Index Fibers: Best suited for medium-haul,
medium to high bandwidth applications using
incoherent and coherent sources (LEDs and ILDs);
LANs
 Evolution of Fibre optic System
• First Generation
 It uses GaAs semiconductor LASER
 Operating Wavelength = 0.8 μm
 Data Rate = 45Mb/s
 Repeater Spacing = 10km
• Second Generation
 It uses GaAsP semiconductor LASER
 Operating Wavelength = 1.3 μm
 Data Rate = 100Mb/s to 1.7 Gb/s
 Repeater Spacing = 50km
 Third Generation
Operating Wavelength = 1.55 μm
Data Rate = 10Gb/s
Repeater Spacing = 100km
Fourth Generation
Operating Wavelength = 1.45 to 1.62 μm
Data Rate = 10Tb/s
Repeater Spacing >10000km
It is currently in use
 Fifth Generation
Operating Wavelength = 1.53 to 1.57 μm
Data Rate = (40 to 160)Gb/s
Repeater Spacing =(24000-35000)km
It is currently in process
 Need for Optical Communication
• Low Transmission loss
• Compact & light weight
• High data rate
• Increased span of transmission
Advantages of Optical Communication
 Wider Bandwidth
 Low loss
 Immune to cross-talk
 Interference Immune
 Light weight
 Small Size
 More Strength
 Security
 Long distance Transmission
 Environment immune
 Safe and easy Installation
 Low cost
Disadvantages of Optical Communication

 High Installation Cost

 Joining and Testing Process is bit difficult, It
requires skilled manpower
Applications of Optical Communication
• Data Storage
Used for data transmission
• Telecommunications
Fiber is laid and used for transmitting and receiving purposes
• Networking
Used to connect users and servers in a variety of network settings
and help increase the speed and accuracy of data transmission
• Broadcast/CATV
Broadcast/cable companies are using fiber optic cables for wiring
CATV, HDTV, internet, video on-demand and other applications
• Medical
Used as light guides, imaging tools and also as lasers for surgeries
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Optical Wavelength

Light frequencies used in optical fiber communication are between 1x10^14 Hz

and 4 x 10^14 Hz.
 OPERATING WAVELENGTH OF OPTICAL
COMMUNICATION

Typical optical transmission wavelengths are 850 nm, 1310

nm, and 1550 nm. Both lasers and LEDs are used to transmit
light through optical fiber. Lasers are usually used for 1310- or
1550-nm single-mode applications. LEDs are used for 850- or
1300-nm multimode applications.
Elements of optical communication
system
 Electromagnetic Theory
 To obtain an detailed understanding of propagation of light
in an optical fiber
 Light as a variety of EM vibrations E and H fields at right angle to
each other and perpendicular to direction of propagation.

 Necessary to solve Maxwell‟s Equations

• Very complex analyses - Qualitative aspects only
 Maxwell’s Equations
 Assuming a linear isotropic dielectric material having
no currents and free charges
 Maxwell’s Equations
Substituting for D and B and taking curl of first equation

Using vector identity

We get

Similarly

 Wave equations for each component of the field vectors E & H.

 Concept of Modes
 A plane monochromatic wave propagating in direction of ray path within
the guide of refractive index n1 sandwiched between two regions of lower
refractive index n2 n 2

n1
Planar optical waveguide

• Wavelength = /n1 n2

• Propagation constant
 = n1 k
• Components
of  in z and x
directions
z = n1k cos
x = n1k sin
• Constructive interference
occurs and standing (a) Plane wave propagating in the guide (b) Interference of
wave obtained in x- plane waves in the guide (forming lowest order mode m=0)
direction
 Components of plane wave in x-direction reflected at core-
cladding interface and interfere
 Constructive: Total phase change after two reflection is equal to
2m radians; m an integer - Standing wave in x-direction
 The optical wave is confined within the guide and the electric field
distribution in the x-direction does not change as the wave propagate
in the z-direction  Sinusoidally varying in z-direction

 The stable field distribution in the x-direction with only a

periodic z-dependence is known as a MODE.
• Specific mode is obtained only when the angle between the
propagation vectors or rays and interface have a particular value –
Discrete modes typified by a distinct value of 
• Have periodic z-dependence of exp(-jz z) or commonly exp(-j z)
• Have time dependence with angular frequency , i.e. exp (j
t)
 Modes in Planar Waveguides
 For monochromatic light fields of angular frequency , a mode traveling
in positive z-direction has a time and z-dependence given by
exp j(t- z)

• Dominant modes propagating in z-

direction with electric field
distribution in x-direction formed
by rays with m=1,2,3
• m denotes number of zeros in
this transverse pattern.
• Also signifies order of the mode
and is known as mode number.

Ray propagation and corresponding TE field patterns

of three lower order modes in planar guide.
 TE and TM modes
 Transverse Electric mode (TE): Electric field perpendicular to
direction of propagation; Ez=0, but a corresponding component of the
magnetic field H in the direction of propagation.

 Transverse Magnetic (TM) mode: A component of E field in the

direction of propagation, but Hz=0.

 Modes with mode numbers; nomenclature by TEm and

TMm
 Transverse ElectroMagnetic (TEM) : Total field lies in the transverse
plane in that case both Ez and Hz are zero.

Low-order TE or TM mode fields

Wave picture of waveguides
 Phase and Group Velocity
 Phase Velocity: For plane wave, there are points of constant phase,
these constant phase points forms a surface, referred to as a wavefront.
 As light wave propagate along a waveguide in the z-direction,
wavefront
travel at a phase velocity ; vp = / 
• Non-monochromaticity leads to group
of waves with closely similar
frequencies
 Wave Packet
Wave packet observed to move at a
group velocity, vg = / 
 Group Velocity
 Vg is of great importance in study of TCs Formation of wave packet from combination
of optical fibers:- relates to the propagation of two waves of nearly equal frequencies
characteristics of observable wave groups
 Group Velocity
 Considering propagation in an infinite medium of R.I. n1,

Propagation constant : 2

  n k  n   n1
1 1
c
Phase velocity : vp  c
n1

c
Group velocity : vg  c
 N
dn1 

g
n
 1   
d 
 Parameter Ng is known as the group index of the guide
 Evanescent Field
 Another phenomenon of interest under conditions of TIR is
the form of the electric field in the cladding of the guide.
The transmitted wave field in the cladding is of the form

B = B0 exp(-2x) exp j(t-z)

The amplitude of the field in the cladding is observed to decay
exponentially in the x-direction  Evanescent Field

• A field of this type stores energy and

transports it in the direction of
propagation
(z) but does not transport energy in
the transverse direction (x).

Exponentially decaying evanescent field • Indicates that optical energy is

in the cladding transmitted
into the cladding.
 Cladding Material
 The evanescent field gives rise to the following requirements
for the choice of cladding material

 Cladding should be transparent to light at the wavelengths over which the

guide is to operate.
 Should consist of a solid material in order to avoid both damage to the
guide and the accumulation of foreign matter on the guide walls.
 Cladding thickness must be sufficient to allow the evanescent field to decay
to a low value or losses from the penetrating energy may be encountered.

 Most widely used optical fibers consist of a core

and cladding, both made of glass.
 Although, it give a lower NA for fiber, but
provides a far more practical solution.
 Cylindrical Fiber
 Exact solution of Maxwell’s Eqns. for a cylindrical dielectric
waveguide- very complicated & complex results.
 In common with planar waveguide, TE and TM modes are
obtained within dielectric cylinder.
• A cylindrical waveguide is bounded in two dimensions, therefore,
two integers, l and m to specify the modes.
TElm and TMlm modes
These modes from meridional rays propagation within guide

 Hybrid modes where Ez and Hz are nonzero – results from skew

ray propagation within the fiber. Designated as
HElm and EHlm depending upon whether the components of H or E make
the larger contribution to transverse field
 Modes in Cylindrical Fibers
 Analysis simplified by considering fibers for
communication purposes.
 Satisfy, weakly guided approximation , <<1, small grazing
angles 

 Approximate solutions for full set of HE, EH, TE and TM modes

may be given by two linearly polarized (LP) components
• Not exact modes of fiber except for fundamental mode, however, as 
is very small, HE-EH modes pairs occur with almost identical
propagation constants  Degenerate modes
• The superposition of these degenerating modes characterized by a
common propagation constant corresponds to particular LP modes
regardless of their HE, EH, TE or TM configurations.
• This linear combination of degenerate modes  a useful simplification
in the analysis of weakly guiding fibers.
Correspondence between the lower order in linearly
polarized modes and the traditional exact modes from
which they are formed.

Linearly polarized Exact

LP01 HE11
LP11 HE21, TE01, TM01
HE31, EH11
LP21 HE12
HE41, EH21
LP02 HE22, TE02, TM02
HE2m, TE0m,
LP31 TM0m
 Intensity Profiles
 Electric field configuration for the
three lowest LP modes in terms of their
constituent exact modes:
• (a) LP mode designations;
• (b) exact mode designations;
• (c) electric field distribution of
the exact modes;
• (d) intensity distribution of Ex for
exact modes indicating the
electric field intensity profile for
the corresponding LP modes.

 Field strength in the transverse

direction is identical for the modes
which belong to the same LP
mode.
 Solutions of Wave Equation
 The scalar wave equation for homogeneous core
waveguide under weak guidance conditions is


d 2  1 d 1 d 2   n 2 k 2   2  
  
dr 2
r dr r 2 d2
0 1
 is the field (E or H).
 The propagation constant for the guided modes  lie in the range
• n2k<  <n1k
 Solution of wave equation for cylindrical fiber have the form

cosl 
  E(r) e x p (  t   z )
 sin l 
Here,  Represents the dominant transverse electric field component.
The periodic dependence on  gives a mode of radial order l.
Introducing the solution to wave equation results in a
differential equation
d 2 E  1 dE   2
2

 E 0

1 2
dr 2
r  r 
dr
 For a SI fiber with constant RI core, it is a Bessel differential
equation and the solutions are cylinder functions. In the core
region the solutions are Bessel functions denoted by Jl (Gradually
damped oscillatory functions w.r.t. r)
 The field is finite at r =0 and is represented by the Zero
order Bessel function J0.

 However, the field vanishes as r goes to infinity and the solutions

in the cladding are therefore modified Bessel functions denoted
by Kl – These modified functions decay exponentially w.r.t. r.
 Figures Showing

(a) Variation of the Bessel

function Jl(r) for l = 0, 1, 2, 3
( first four orders), plotted
against r.

(b) Graph of the modified

Bessel function Kl(r) against
r for l = 0, 1.
 Bessel Function Solutions
 The electric field is given
by
E(r)= GJl(UR) for R<1 (core)

= GJl(U) for R>1(cladding)

Kl(WR)/K
where G; amplitude l(W) R=r/a; normalized radial coordinate, U & W
coefficient,
are eigen values in the core and cladding respectively
U; radial phase parameter or radial propagation constant
W; cladding decay parameter
U = a(n12k2-2)½ and W= a(2-n22k2) ½
 The sum of squares of U & W defines a very useful quantity
usually referred to as normalized frequency V
V = (U2+W2)½ = ka(n12-n22)½
 V-Number
 Normalized Frequency, V may be expressed in terms of NA
and
, as 2 2 1
V a(NA)  a n1 (2) 2
 
 Normalized frequency is a dimensionless parameter and simply
called V-number or value of the fiber.
 It combines in a very useful manner the information about
three
parameters, a,  and .
 Limiting parameter for single and multimode propagation
in optical fiber.
 V  2.405 for SM operation
 Allowed LP modes
 Lower order modes obtained in a cylindrical homogeneous
core waveguide

• Value of V, where J0 and J1

cross the zero gives the
cutoff point for various
modes.
V = Vc ;

• Vc is different for different

modes
= 0 for LP01 mode
Allowed regions for the LP modes of order l = 0,1 = 2.405 for LP11
against normalized frequency (V) for a circular
= 3.83 for LP02
optical waveguide with a constant refractive index
core (SI)
 Leaky & Guided Modes
 Limit of mode propagation i.e. n2k< <n1k
 Cut OFF: When,  = n2k ; the mode phase velocity is equal to the velocity of
light in the cladding and mode is no longer properly guided.
 Mode is said to be cut off and eigenvalue W=0

 Unguided (Radiation, Leaky) modes have frequencies below cutoff, where

<n2k and hence W is imaginary. Nevertheless, wave propagation does
not cease abruptly below cutoff. Modes exist near the core-cladding
interface.
 Solns of wave equation giving these states are called leaky modes, and
often behaves as very lousy guided modes rather than radiation modes.

 Guided Modes: For  > n2k, less power is propagated in the

cladding until at = n1k - all the power is confined to the fiber core.
 This range of values for  signifies guided modes of the
 Step Index Fibers
Fiber with a core of constant refractive index n1 and a cladding
of slightly lower refractive index n2 .
 Refractive index profile makes a step change at the core-cladding
interface

Refractivenindex
; profile
r<a (core)
1
n(r) =
n2 ; r a
(cladding)
• Multimode Step Index
• Single mode Step Index

The refractive index profile and ray transmission

in step index fibers: (a) multimode step index fiber.
(b) single-mode step index fiber.
 Modes in SI Fibers
 MM SI fibers allow the propagation of a finite number of
guided modes along the channel.
 Number of guided modes is dependent upon the physical
parameters ; a, 
of fibers and wavelength of the transmitted light – included in V-
number

• The total number of guided modes or mode volume Ms for SI

fiber is related to V-number for the fiber by approximate
expression
Ms  V2/2
 Allows an estimate of number of guided modes propagating in a
 For example:
particular AMMMMSISIfiber.
fiber of core diameter 80m, core refractive index
1.48, relative index difference of 1.5% and operating at 850nm
 supports 2873 guided modes.
 Power Flow in Step-Index Fibers
 Far from the cutoff the average power in the cladding has
been derived for the fibers in which many modes can
propagate.
Because of the large number of modes, those few modes that are
appreciably close to cutoff can be ignored to a reasonable
approximation.
The total average cladding power is thus approximated
by 4 1
 Pclad   2 Here M is the total number of modes
 P entering the fiber
total M
3
 Since M is proportional to V2, the power flow in the
cladding decreases as V increases.
 For V = 1;  70% of power flow in cladding
 For V = 2.405;  20% of power flow in cladding.
 Power Flow in Step-Index Fibers

Fractional power flow in the cladding of a SI fiber as

a function of V.
 Graded Index Fiber Structure
 GI fibers do not have a constant refractive index in the core, but a
decreasing core index n(r) with radial distance from a
maximum value of n1 at the axis to a constant value n2 beyond the
core radius „a‟ in the cladding. – Inhomogeneous core fibers

Index variation is represented as

where,  is relative refractive index difference and  is the profile

parameter which gives the characteristic RI profile of the fiber
core.
 The refractive index profile and ray transmission in a multimode
graded index fiber.

= ; Step index profile

= 2; Parabolic profile
 =1 Triangular profile

Possible fiber refractive index profiles for different

values of 
 Graded Index Fiber
nc
quadratically
n varies

nf

nc
 Graded Index Fiber Parameters
 The parameters defined for SI fibers ( NA, , V) may be applied to GI fibers
and give comparison between two. However, in GI fibers situation is more
complicated because of radial variation of RI of core from the axis, NA is also
function of radial distance.

Local numerical aperture

Axial numerical aperture

Number of bound modes in graded index fiber

is • For parabolic profile core (=2),
  
2
2
   V Mg = V2/4  half the number
Mg     1 
(n ka)
 supported by SI fiber with sane V
  2    2 2
   value