Chapter

Three
Classical
Electromechanical
Instrument
 Deflection Instruments Fundamentals

 They have a pointer deflects over its scale to

indicate the quantity to be measured.

 Three forces are operating inside the

instrument. {Deflecting, Controlling, and
Damping Forces}
 Deflection Instruments
Fundamentals

Examples
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
(PMMC) instruments, Electro-dynamic
instruments, Moving iron instruments
Deflection Instruments Fundamentals
 Deflection Instruments Fundamentals
 Deflecting force deflects the pointer to a
deflecting angle proportional to the input
quantity to be measured.

 Its direction is towards the full scale deflection

angle.

 Its magnitude is proportional to the input

quantity to be measured.
Deflection Instruments Fundamentals
 Deflection Instruments Fundamentals

Controlling force is generated due to two Spiral

control springs in case of Jewel bearing
suspension.
 Deflection Instruments Fundamentals

Where as the taut band control force is generated

in case of taut band suspension
 Deflection Instruments Fundamentals
• Controlling force Stops the pointer at
its exact - final position.

• It Returns the pointer to its zero

position .

• Its magnitude is proportional to the

angle of deflection Φ
 Deflection Instruments Fundamentals

The correct damping have a fast and zero oscillation

of the pointer movement.
Deflection Instruments Fundamentals
 Deflection Instruments Fundamentals

• Magnitude of the damping force is

proportional to the pointer
acceleration

• The direction of the eddy current

damping force opposes the motion of
the coil.
Methods Of Supporting The
Moving System Of Deflection
Instrument
 SUSPENSION

The pointed ends of pivots fastened to the coil

are inserted into cone-shaped cuts in jewel
bearings
 SUSPENSION

• Some jewel bearings are spring supported to

absorb such shocks more easily
 SUSPENSION

- The most sensitive jeweled-bearing instruments

give full scale deflection (FSD) with a coil current
of 25 µA
 SUSPENSION

Two flat metal ribbons (phosphor bronze or

platinum alloy) are held under tension by springs
to support the coil
 SUSPENSION

The ribbons also exert a controlling force as they

twist, and they can be used as electrical
connections to the moving coil
 SUSPENSION

With taut-band suspension instruments give

FSD with a coil current may be little as 2 µA .
 Permanent Magnet
Moving Coil (PMMC)
Instruments

The PMMC Inst. Is The Most Common Used

.As Deflection Type Instrument
 Construction PMMC Instrument

-A permanent magnet
with two soft-iron
pole shoes

- A cylindrical soft-
iron core is
positioned between
the shoes
 Construction PMMC Instrument
• One of the two
controlling spiral
springs is shown.

• One end of this

spring is fastened to
the pivoted coil, and
the other end is
connected to an
adjustable zero-
position control.
 Construction PMMC Instrument

- The current in the

coil must flow in
one direction to
cause the pointer to
move from the zero
position over the
scale.
 Construction PMMC Instrument

- The terminals (+)

and (–) indicate
the correct
polarity for
connection, and
the instrument is
said to be
polarized
 Construction PMMC Instrument

- It cannot be
used directly to
measure
alternating
current Without
rectifiers, it is
purely a dc
instrument
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument
 The mirror is placed below
the pointer to get the
accurate reading by
removing the parallax.
Torque Equation & Scale
 Torque Equation & Scale
The force F affecting
on both sides of the
Coil ( N turns) ┴ to B.

F = BILN
They produce a deflecting
torque Tdef

Tdef = BILND
Tdef = BINA = Cdef I
 Torque Equation & Scale

Where A is the area

of one turn of the
coil [m2],

Cdef = BNA is the

deflection constant

…......[Nm/Ampere]
 Torque Equation & Scale
As Tcon α Φ
Tcon = Ccon Φ

Where Ccon is the control

constant [Nm/degree].

At final position of the

pointer:
(Tdef) = (Tcon)
Then Φ = KI
Where K = Cdef / Ccon
 Torque Equation & Scale
Conclusion:

•The pointer deflection is linearly

proportional to I .

•The PMMC scale is linear (equally spaced).

•If the current changes its direction(-ve

current), the pointer will deflect off the scale.
 PMMC Instrument Is Called
A Polarized Instrument
 Its deflection depends on the polarity of its
input quantity.

 It cannot be used to measure an (ac) directly,

but a rectifier must be used firstly to convert
(ac) quantity to (dc) quantity before
applying it to instrument.
Advantages Of The PMMC Instruments

 Linear scale .
 Simple and cheap.
 Can be constructed with very high
sensitivity (specially if taut band
suspension is used).
 Disadvantages Of The PMMC
Instruments
 Polarized

 External magnetic fields badly affect its

operation. This can be avoided by using core
magnet type PMMC construction****.

 Not very sensitive (to have sensitive device the

taut band suspension must be used: which is expensive).
 :EXAMPLE
A PMMC inst. with a 100-turn coil has a magnetic
flux density in its air gaps of B = 0.2T. The coil
dimensions are D=1 cm and L=1.5 cm.

calculate the torque Tdef on the coil for a current of

1mA and its deflection constant (Cdef). If the device
constant K = 12x103 degree/A, find:
The spring (control) constant Ccon.

Find the angle of deflection (Φ) for the input

currents: 1,2,4, and 8mA. Conclude your results.
 :SOLUTION
Tdef =BILND [Nm]
Tdef=0.2x1x10-3 Ax1.5x10-2mx100x1x10-2m
=3x10-6 Nm.
Tdef = Cdef I
Cdef = Tdef / I = 3x10-6 / 1x10-3 Nm/ A
K= Cdef / Ccon
Ccon= (3x10-3 Nm/A)/ (12x103 0/A) Nm/degree.

Φ=KI
=12x103x1x10-3=120
= 12x103x2x10-3=240
= 12x103x4x10-3=480
=12x103x4x10-3=960
 :SOLUTION

Conclusion:

If the current is doubled

the angle of deflection is
doubled
(i.e. PMMC has a linear scale)
 Electrodynamics' Instruments

Deflecting force is generated due to the interaction between a

magnetic field generated due to a …………….
 Electrodynamics' Instruments

Air vane chamber used to generate the air damping force

(torque).
 Electrodynamics' Instruments

As the pointer moves the air van moves in the closed

chamber and an air damping torque is generated .
AC Operation Of Electrodynamics'
Instruments
AC Operation Of Electrodynamics'
Instruments
 Torque Equation And Scale
Tdef α I1 I2
Tdef= Cdef I1 I2
where Cdef is the deflection constant [Nm/A2]
As Tcon α Φ
Tcon = Ccon Φ
where Ccon is the control constant [Nm/degree]
But at final position of the pointer: Tdef = Tcon, then:
Φ = K I1 I2
Where K = Cdef / Ccon is the device constant [degree/A2]
If I1 = I2 then Ф =K I2
 Advantages Of The Electro-dynamic
Instruments

 Non polarized
 Disadvantages Of The Electro-dynamic
Instruments

 Its scale is non linear.

 Low frequency AC measurements.
 Less sensitive than the PMMC
instrument.
 Example
For an electro-dynamic instrument used as an
ammeter, calculate the deflection torque (Tdef) on
its moving coil for a current 1mA if its deflection
constant (Cdef ) equals to 5x103 Nm/A2. if the
device constant (K) equals to 5x105 o/A2,

find:
The spring (control) constant (C ).
con
The angle of deflection (Ф) for the input currents:
1,2,4,8 mA. Conclude your results.
 Solution
Tdef= Cdef I2 = 5x103x(1x10-3)2 = 5x10-3 Nm
K = Cdef / Ccon

Ccon = 5x103 / 5x105 =1x10-2 Nm/degree

Ф =K I2
= 5x105x(1x10-3)2 = 0.5o
= 5x105x(2x10-3)2 = 2o
= 5x105x(4x10-3)2 = 8o
= 5x105x(8x10-3)2 = 32o
 Solution
Conclusion of the example:

If the current is doubled, the angle is

multiplied by 4.
(i.e the electro-dynamic ammeter has a
non linear scale).
 :Moving Iron Instruments

Deflecting force is generated due to the

repulsion force generated between a
movable and a fixed
iron pieces placed in
a magnetic field which
is generated due to
passing current in
stationary coil.
 :Moving Iron Instruments
The deflecting force causes the rotation of the
movable iron piece to which the pointer
is connected.
 Galvanometer Instrument
 A Galvanometer is a
PMMC instrument
designed to be :
 Very sensitive to very
low currents

 Null detectors and its

zero deflection is in
mid-scale.
 Galvanometer Instrument
 In order to achieve these requirements,

 Taut band suspension is used to increase its

sensitivity.

 light beam pointer is used.

 using shunt damping resistor which controls

the level of eddy currents.
 Galvanometer Instrument

 Critical damping resistance value which

gives just sufficient damping to allow the
pointer to settle down quickly with a very
small short lived oscillation.

Rcd = SV / SI [Ω, μV /mm / μA /mm]

 Galvanometer Instrument

Current Sensitivity (SI) [μA /mm]

 It is amount of current (μA ) flowing

through the instrument to give
deflection (mm).

.
 Galvanometer Instrument

Voltage Sensitivity (SV) [μV /mm]

 It is expressed for a given value of a

damping resistance as follows:

SV = Rcd SI [μV /mm, Ω μA /mm]

.
 Galvanometer Instrument
Megohm sensitivity (SMΩ) [MΩ]
 It is the resistance connected in series with the
instrument to restrict the deflection to one scale
division for 1 V potential difference between its
terminals

SV = Rcd SI [μV /mm, Ω μA /mm]

.
 Protection Of The Galvanometer

 When the galvanometer is used as a

null detector (e.g. across the diagonal
of a Wheatstone bridge), initially
high current may passes across it due
to the unbalance of the bridge.
 Protection Of The Galvanometer
 :
EXAMPLE
 A galvanometer (a) has a current sensitivity of 1
μA/mm and a critical damping resistance of
1KΩ. Calculate its voltage sensitivity and
megohm sensitivity.

 Another galvanometer (b) deflects by 2 cm

when its current is 10 μA, find its current
sensitivity, megohm sensitivity, and critical
damping resistance if its voltage sensitivity is
2mV/mm.
SOLUTION

(a) SV = Rcd SI
= 1KΩ x 1 μA/mm = 1 mV /mm
SMΩ = 1 V/mm / SI
= 1 V/mm / 1 μA/mm = 1 MΩ
(b) Si = current (μA) / deflection in mm
= 10 μA / 20 mm = 0.5 μA/mm
SMΩ = 1 V/mm / SI
= 1 V/mm / 0.5 μA/mm = 2 MΩ
Rcd = SV / SI