RESPIRATION

Respiration: It is defined as the sum total of the

physical and chemical processes in an organism
by which oxygen is conveyed to tissues, cells and
carbon dioxide and water, are given off. It is a
energy releasing process. It involves two
process:
i. Exchange of respiratory gases between the
lungs and blood
ii. Oxidation of the digested food stuff to
release energy.
Types of Respiration
1. Aerobic
• It occurs in all higher forms (organisms) in this
type Oxygen is necessary.
• C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ -------- 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + 2880 K
joule .
2. Anaerobic respiration
• C₆H₁₂O₆ ----------- C₂H₅OH(ethyl alcohol) + CO₂
+ 210 K joule example yeast
Respiratory organ system
i. Upper air ways: Nostrils, paranasal sinuses , pharynx and
larynx
ii. Lower air ways: Trachea, stem bronchus , terminal bronchioles,
lungs, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar duct and alveoli.
iii. Respiratory muscles: diaphragm, internal intercostals and
external intercostals muscles.
 Nostrils and nasal chambers: There is pair of nostrils
separated by a septum present above the mouth. Its
anterior part is cartilagenous and posterior part is bony.
The nostril lead to the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity is
divided into bony shelves called turbinates or nasal
choncha namely inferior, middle and superior choncha.
These turbinates provide a large surface area. Air is
warmed and moistened as it passes over these
surfaces.
Paranasal sinuses: Associated with nasal cavity there are air filled
cavity called paranasal sinuses. There are four paired sinuses –
named according to the bone in which they are located – maxillary,
frontal, sphenoid and ethmoid. Each sinus is lined by a mucus
membrane interspersed with mucus-secreting goblet cells.
The function of the paranasal sinuses is a topic
of much debate. Various roles have been
suggested like :
• Lightening the weight of the head
• Supporting immune defense of the nasal
cavity.
• Humidifying inspired air
• Increasing resonance of the voice
Function of nasal passage: Internally nostrils,
sinuses and nasal cavity forms the nasal passage
and it has following functions:
• To filter and warm the incoming air due to the
immense blood vessels radiating heat in the nasal
cavity.
• To prevent the entrance of foreign particles into
the lungs.
• To moisten the dry air as it travels over the moist
mucosa.
• Produces sound.
• To detect the smell due to the presence of
olfactory receptors located in the roof of nose.
Pharynx: The throat (pharynx) is a 12-14 cm long
muscular tube that runs from the back of our nose down
into our neck. It opens to the head of oseophagus and
larynx. It contains three sections: the nasopharynx,
oropharynx and laryngopharynx. The pharynx chamber
serves both respiratory and digestive functions.
Larynx or voice box: It is a small structure made up
cartilages, muscles and a hyoid bone. Its nine cartilages
are the thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, epiglottis,
arytenoid cartilages, corniculate cartilages, and
cuneiform cartilages. The first three are unpaired
cartilages and the latter three are paired cartilages. Its
chamber consists of glottis(middle space having vocal
cords) which is protected by fibro elastic cartilage
known as epiglottis. It keeps the food out of respiratory
tract.
An Adam's apple is simply a name for the area of
the thyroid cartilage that appears more
prominent on the front of the neck. It's mostly
seen in men following puberty, but it can occur
in women, too.
 Vocal cords: In the cavity of larynx between the thyroid
and arytenoid cartilage there are two V- shaped vocal
cords made up of muscles. The vocal cord are tightened
by muscles. When air is forced through the vocal box
the cords vibrate producing sound.
Trachea: Trachea or wind pipe is a hollow tube like structure
measuring 12 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. It extends through out
the neck and upper part of thoraxic cavity from ( 6th cervical
vertebrae to 5th thoracic vertebrae. It is situated ventral to the
food pipe.
Externally it is supported by 16-20 C shaped
tracheal rings made up of hyaline cartilage lying
one above the other. These cartiliginous rings
support the trachea and prevents it from the
collapsing and obstruction the air ways.
Bronchi (Sing- Bronchus): As the trachea extends downwards
through the neck into the chest, it bifurcates at T5 into two short
primary bronchus called right and left bronchi. The right bronchus
is wider and shorter where as the left bronchus is longer and
narrower. Internally the bronchus is lined with ciliated columnar
epithelium cells like trachea.
Each primary bronchi within the lung, further
branch into secondary and tertiary bronchi and
further into terminal bronchioles, respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts and finally alveoli.
Alveoli: Each bronchiole leads to a bunch of tiny
sacs called alveoli. There are 150 -170 million
alveoli in each lungs. The alveoli are surrounded
by a dense network of the blood capillaries. The
capillaries are in close contact with the alveoli
through a thin respiratory membrane.
Across the membrane respiratory gas exchange takes
place, O2 diffuses from the alveoli and CO 2 from the
blood into the alveoli. The outer layer alveoli is lined
with squamous cells. Between the squamous cells are
septal or pneumocyte cells that secrete surfactant, a
phospholipids fluid which prevents the alveoli from
drying and also prevents the alveolar walls from
collapsing during expiration.
The respiratory membrane is the surface where
gaseous exchange between alveoli and blood
occurs in the lungs. It is a thin membrane
composed of an alveolar and capillary wall.
 LUNGS
There is a pair of spongy conical hollow bags enclosed in pleural
cavities called lungs. The pleural cavities are lined by tough,
flexible and transparent membranes called pleura. The pleura is
double walled. The outer membrane is parietal and inner
membrane is visceral membrane. These membranes protect
lungs and stop leaking of air into thoracic cavity. The fluid
secreted by pleura reduces the friction during breathing
movement. The lungs are capable of great expansion. They are
inflated when filled with air.
These are found in either side of heart. The right lung has three
lobes and left lung has two lobes. The three lobes of right lung
are right superior, right inferior and middle lobe. The two lobes
of left lung are left superior and left inferior. The left lung has
cardiac notch to accommodate the heart. There are about 750
millions of alveoli. Alveoli are extremely thin walled and vascular
structure surrounded by capillary of network. These are the site
for gases exchange.
Mechanism of breathing: Breathing is simply taking
in of fresh air from atmosphere and giving out of
used air from lungs. It is accomplished through
changes in the volume and air pressure of the
thoracic cavity. Change in volume and air pressure is
carried out by movement of ribs, internal and
external intercostals muscles, diaphragm and
abdominal muscles. Breathing can be divided into
inhalation and exhalation. One breath includes one
inspiration or inhalation and one expiration or
exhalation. The respiratory rate is the no. of breaths
taken per minute. At rest, for a normal person, it is
equal to 12 to 14 breaths per minute. The
pulmonary air volume during breathing is measured
by an apparatus called Spirometer
A spirometer is the equipment used for basic pulmonary
function tests. Lung diseases such as asthma, bronchitis and
emphysema can be detected. In addition, a spirometer is often
used for finding the cause of shortness of breath, assessing the
effect of contaminants on lung function, the effect of medication
and evaluating progress for disease treatment.
 Mechanism of breathing
Inhalation
[Link] in of atmospheric air.
[Link] of rib muscles
[Link] cage moves forward and outward
[Link] contracts and becomes flattened
shaped.
[Link] in the volume of thoracic cavity.
[Link] in air pressure(below atmospheric
pressure.
[Link] in of air through nostril into alveolar sacs
causing inflation of lung
Exhalation
1. Giving out of air from lungs.
2. Relaxation of rib muscles.
3. Rib cage moves downward and inward.
4. Diaphragm relaxes and become dome
5. Decrease in volume of thoracic cavity.
6. Increase in the air pressure.
7. Expulsion of air from lungs into atmosphere
causing deflation of lungs.
Exchanges of respiratory gases in the lungs: The
exchanges of gases takes place across the
respiratory membrane formed by the fusion of
alveolar wall and the endothelium of capillary.
The gaseous exchanges inside the lungs depends
upon the difference between the partial
pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
alveoli and the venous blood capillaries
surrounding the alveoli through the process of
simple diffusion.
EXCHANGE OF RESPIRATORY GASES
During the inspiration, the partial pressure of
oxygen in the lungs is higher than the pressure
of oxygen in the blood capillaries, where as the
partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the
capillaries is higher than its pressure in the lungs
alveoli. Due to these pressure difference of
oxygen and carbon dioxide, the oxygen from the
lungs alveoli diffuses into the blood and carbon
dioxide diffuses from blood into the lungs.
Mechanism of sound production
Mechanism of sound production: Sound is
produced by vocal cords. There are two vocal cords
which extends from the inner wall of thyroid cartilage
anteriorly to the arytenoid cartilages posteriorly.
When the muscles controlling the vocal cords
relaxed, the vocal cords are open or separated
and the passage for air through the larynx is
open, then the vocal cords are said to be
abducted and very low sound is produce. Where
as when the muscles controlling the vocal cords
contract, the vocal cords are stretched out
tightly across the larynx. The vocal cords are said
to be adducted or closed and at this condition
passing of air vibrates the vocal cord strongly
and high pitch sound is produced
• Muscles controlling the vocal cords relax-vocal cords open
(abducted)-low sound is produced.
• Muscles contract-vocal cords stretched (adducted)-high
pitched sound is produced
Physiology of respiration: Physiology of
respiration in human body takes place in the
following ways.
1. External respiration
2. Transportation of oxygen by blood
3. Internal respiration
4. Transportation of carbon dioxide by blood
1. External respiration: It is the uptake of O₂ and
release of CO₂. It takes place in the lungs and is
also called breathing
[Link] of O2 by blood: Oxygen is transported in the
blood in two ways: A small amount of oxygen (1.5 percent) is
carried in the plasma as a dissolved gas. Most oxygen (98.5
percent) is carried in the form of oxyhaemoglobin in the
[Link] readily combines with oxygen and forms
oxyhaemoglobin .
Hb + O₂ → HbO₂
3. Internal respiration:
a. Dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin: The oxygen is transported to
the tissues in the form of oxyhaemoglobin. Oxyhaemoglobin as it
reaches the tissues it quickly dissociates into oxygen and
haemoglobin as oxyhaemoglobin is unstable compound. Oxygen
enter into the tissue and haemoglobin picks up the carbon
dioxide.
b. Oxidation of food: Free oxygen enters the tissue and it
oxidizes glucose to liberate energy, water and carbon dioxide.
How is oxygen transported?
Oxygen is transported in the blood in two ways:
A small amount of oxygen (1.5 percent) is
carried in the plasma as a dissolved gas. Most
oxygen (98.5 percent) is carried in the form of
oxyhaemoglobin in the blood by binding to the
hemoglobin in red blood cells.
4. Transportation of carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide diffuses out
of cells and is transported in blood in in three different ways.
i.10% of carbon dioxide gets dissolve in blood plasma and
transported in the form of CO2.
ii. 20- 25% of CO2 gets bind with amine group of Hb and get
transported in the form of carbaminohaemoglobin.
iii. 60-70 % in the form of bicarbonates. Carbon dioxide first
reacts with water and form carbonic acid with help of enzyme
carbonic anhydrase. However, carbonic acid dissociates into
bicarbonate and carbon dioxide is transported to the lungs
TRANSPORTATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE
Chloride shift (also known as the Hamburger shift or Hamburger
phenomenon, named after Hartog Jacob Hamburger) is a process
which refers to the exchange of bicarbonate (HCO3−)
and chloride (Cl−) across the membrane of red blood cells to
maintain the ionic equilibrium in plasma and RBC. It is done with
the help of bicarbonate-chloride carrier protein in the
membrane of RBC.
Bohr effect: The Bohr effect is a physiological phenomenon first
described in 1904 by the Danish physiologist Christian Bohr. It is
the shifting of oxygen haemoglobin curve to the right in
response to the increase in blood CO2 and H ions enhancing the
release of oxygen from the blood to the tissues and enhancing
the oxygenation of blood in lungs.
Artificial respiration is the forcing of air by following the steps of
CPR (Cardiopulmonary resuscitation) into the lungs of someone
who has stopped breathing, usually by blowing air through their
mouth or nose, in order to keep them alive and to help them to
start breathing again.
THANK YOU
Pulmonary air volumes: It is defined as the
quantities of air that the lungs can receive, hold
or expel under different conditions. The
following terms are used to express the
pulmonary air volumes. It is measured by
spirometer.
Tidal volume: It is the volume of air that is
breathed in and out during effortless breathing.
It measures 500 ml.
Dead space: Air inhaled during breathing that
stays in the conducting zone [ trachea, bronchus
and bronchioles]. It is about 150ml.
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): is defined as
the additional air that can be forcibly inhaled
after the inspiration of a normal tidal volume. It
is 3100 ml.
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): is defined as
the additional air that can be forcibly exhaled
after the exhalation of a normal tidal volume. It
is 1200 ml.
Residual volume (RV): is the volume of air still
remaining in the lungs after the expiratory
reserve volume is exhaled. It is 1200 ml.
Vital capacity (VC) is the maximum amount of air a person can
exhale from the lungs after a maximum inhalation. It is equal to
the sum of tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and
expiratory reserve volume.
VC= TV+IRV+ERV = 500+3100+1200= 4800ml
The total lung capacity (TLC) is the volume of air in the lungs
after a maximum inhalation.
Total Lung Capacity= TV+IRV+RV+ERV

TLC=TV+IRV+RV+ERV=500+3100+1200+1200=6000ml
TLC=VC+RV = 4800+1200=6000ml
Total Lung Capacity= TV+IRV+RV+ERV
The total lung capacity (TLC) is the volume of air in
the lungs after a maximum inhalation.
TLC=TV+IRV+RV+ERV=500+3100+1200+1200=6000
ml
TLC=VC+RV = 4800+1200=6000ml
Vital capacity (VC) is the maximum amount of air a
person can exhale from the lungs after a maximum
inhalation. It is equal to the sum of inspiratory
reserve volume, tidal volume and expiratory reserve
volume.
VC= TV+IRV+ERV = 500+3100+1200= 4800ml
male=4800ml, female=3000ml
Respiratory quotient: Respiratory quotient is the ratio of the
volume of carbon dioxide produced to the volume of oxygen
consumed in respiration over a set period of time. It is measured
by Ganong’s respirometer
RQ= volume of carbon dioxide/volume of oxygen consumed.
RQ=molecules of carbon dioxide/molecules of oxygen
consumed= 6/6=1,So if cells use pure glucose the RQ is 1.
• Respiration at high altitude.