Evolution and Biodiversity

Miller Chapter 5

Essential Questions

Be able to describe how the earth is just right for life What is evolution? How has evolution lead to the current diversity of organisms? What is an ecological niche? How does it relate to adaptation to changing environmental conditions? How do extinction of species and formation of new species affect biodiversity?

Earth: The Just Right Planet

Temperature

Distance from Sun Geothermal energy from core Temperature fluctuated only 10-20oC over 3.7 billion years despite 30-40% increase in solar output

Water exists in 3 phases Right size (=gravitational mass to keep atmosphere) Resilient and adaptive Each species here today represents a long chain of evolution and each plays a role in its respective ecosystem

Origins of Life on Earth 4.7-4.8 Billion Year History

Evidence from chemical analysis and measurements of radioactive elements in primitive rocks and fossils. Life developed over two main phases:

Chemical evolution (took about 1 billion years)

Organic molecules, proteins, polymers, and chemical reactions to form first protocells

Biological evolution (3.7 billion years)

From single celled prokaryotic bacteria to eukaryotic creatures to eukaryotic multicellular organisms (diversification of species)

Summary of Evolution of Life

Chemical Evolution (1 billion years) Formation of the earths early crust and atmosphere Small organic molecules form in the seas Large organic molecules (biopolymers) form in the seas First protocells form in the seas

Biological Evolution (3.7 billion years)

Single-cell prokaryotes form in the seas Single-cell eukaryotes form in the seas Variety of multicellular organisms form, first in the seas and later on land

Biological Evolution

Modern humans (Homo sapiens) appear about 2 seconds before midnight

Age of mammals

Insects and amphibians invade the land Plants invade the land Fossils become abundant

Age of reptiles

Recorded human history begins 1/4 second before midnight Origin of life (3.63.8 billion years ago)

Fossils present but rare

Evolution and expansion of life

Fossil Record

Most of what we know of the history of life on earth comes from fossils (SJ Gould) Give us physical evidence of organisms

Show us internal structure We have fossils for 1% of species believed to have lived on earth Some organisms left no fossils, others decomposed, others have yet to be found.

Uneven and incomplete record of species

Other info from ancient rocks, ice core, DNA The whale as an example Other evidence here

Evolution

The change in a POPULATIONS genetic makeup (gene pool) over time (successive generations)

Those with the best phenotype and genotype survive to reproduce and pass on traits All species descended from earlier ancestor species

Microevolution

Small genetic changes in a population such as the spread of a mutation or the change in the frequency of a single allele due to selection (changes to gene pool) Not possible without genetic variability in a pop Long term large scale evolutionary changes through which new species are formed and others are lost through extinction

Macroevolution

Microevolution

Changes in a populations gene pool over time.

Genetic variability within a population is the catalyst Mutation (random changes in DNAultimate source of new alleles) [stop little]

Four Processes cause Microevolution

Exposure to mutagens or random mistakes in copying Random/unpredictable relatively rare

Natural Selection (best produce most offspring) Gene flow (movement of genes between pops) Genetic drift (change in gene pool due to random/chance events)

Peppered moth of England; El Nino Galapagos

Darwinian Natural Selection

Three conditions necessary for evolution by natural selection to occur:

Natural variability for a trait in a population Trait must be heritable (has a genetic basis so that it can be passed onto offspring) Trait must lead to differential reproduction Must allow some members of the population to leave more offspring than other members of the population w/o trait)

A heritable trait that enables organisms to survive is called an adaptation (Lamark is wrong)

Why wont our lungs evolve to deal with air pollution?

Limits to adaptation:

A change in the environment can only lead to adaptation for traits already present in the gene pool Reproductive capacity may limit a populations ability to adapt

If you reproduce quickly (insects, bacteria) then you can adapt to changes in a short time If you reproduce slowly (elephants, tigers, corals) then it takes thousands or millions of years to adapt through natural selection

Most individuals without trait would have to die in order for the trait to predominate and be passed on

Take Home #1

When faced with a change in environmental condition, a population of a species can:

Adapt via natural selection Migrate (if possible) to an area with more favorable conditions (Mars & Atlantis?) Become extinct

Natural selection can only act on inherited alleles already present in the populationdo not think that the environment creates favorable heritable characteristics!

Steps of Evolution

Genetic variation is added to genotype by mutation Mutations lead to changes in the phenotype Phenotype is acted upon by natl selection Individuals more suited to environment produce more offspring (contribute more to total gene pool of population) Populations gene pool changes over time Speciation may occur if geographic and reproductive isolating mechanisms exist Natural Selection in action ... A demonstration...

Three types of Natural Selection

Directional

Allele frequencies shift to favor individuals at one extreme of the normal range

Only one side of the distribution reproduce Population looks different over time

Peppered moths and genetic resistance to pesticides among insects and antibiotics in bacteria

Stabilizing

Favors individuals with an average genetic makeup

Only the middle reproduce Population looks more similar over time (elim. extremes)

Diversifying

Environmental conditions favor individuals at both ends of the genetic spectrum

Population split into two groups

Directional Change in the Range of Variation

Directional Selection

Shift in allele frequency in a consistent direction

Phenotypic Variation in a population of butterflies

The Case of the Peppered Moths

Industrial revolution

Pollution darkened tree trunks

Camouflage of moths increases survival from predators Directional selection caused a shift away from light-gray towards dark-gray moths

Fig. 18.5, p. 287

Directional Selection

Pesticide Resistance

Pest resurgence

Antibiotic Resistance

Grants Finch Beak Data

With directional selection, allele frequencies tend to shift in response to directional changes in the environment

Selection Against or in Favor of Extreme Phenotypes

Stabilizing Selection

Intermediate forms of a trait are favored Alleles that specify extreme forms are eliminated from a population Gall size in Eurosta solidaginis

An Example of Stabilizing Selection

20 100 70 50 30 20 percent of mortality

15 percent of population

10

10

5 3 2

10

11

birth weight (pounds)

Selection Against or in Favor of Extreme Phenotypes

Disruptive Selection

Both forms at extreme ends are favored

Intermediate forms are eliminated

Bill size in African finches

60

50

Number of individuals

40

30

20

10

10

1.12

15.7

18.5

Widest part of lower bill (millimeters)

Fig. 18.9, p. 289

Special Types of Selection

Balancing selection

Distribution of Malaria

Balanced polymorphism
Sickle-Cell Malaria

Anemia

Sickle Cell Trait

Gene Flow and Genetic Drift

Gene Flow

Flow of alleles
Emigration

and immigration of individuals

Genetic Drift

Random change in allele frequencies over generations brought about by chance

In the absence of other forces, drift leads to loss of genetic diversity

Genetic Drift

Magnitude of drift is greatest in small populations

Directional Selection
Number of individuals
Snail coloration best adapted to conditions

Average
Natural selection

Number of individuals

New average

Previous average

Average shifts

Coloration of snails

Coloration of snails

Individuals from one side of distribution reproduce Population Looks Different Over TimeMean changes (e.g., peppered moths)

Stabilizing Selection
Number of individuals Number of individuals

Light snails eliminated

Dark snails eliminated

Natural selection

Snails with extreme coloration are eliminated

Coloration of snails Average remains the same Number of individuals with intermediate coloration increases Eliminates Fringe Individuals

Coloration of snails

Diversifying Selection
Number of individuals
Intermediate-colored snails are selected against Light Dark coloration coloration is favored is favored

Number of individuals

Snails with light and dark colors dominate

Natural selection

Coloration of snails

Coloration of snails

Environment favors extreme uncommon Individuals Greatly reduces those with average traits

Coevolution

Interactions between species can cause microevolution

Changes in the gene pool of one species can cause changes in the gene pool of the other

Adaptation follows adaptation in something of a long term arms race between interacting populations of different populations

The Red Queen Effect Angiosperms and insects (pollinators) Corals and zooxanthellae Rhizobium bacteria and legume root nodules

Can also be symbiotic coevolution

And NUH is the letter I use to spell Nutches, Who live in small caves, known as Niches, for hutches. These Nutches have troubles, the biggest of which is The fact there are many more Nutches than Niches. Each Nutch in a Nich knows that some other Nutch Would like to move into his Nich very much. So each Nutch in a Nich has to watch that small Nich Or Nutches who haven't got Niches will snitch.
-On Beyond Zebra (1955) Dr. Seuss

Niches

A species functional role in an ecosystem Involves everything that affects its survival and reproduction Includes range of tolerance of all abiotic factors Trophic characteristics How it interacts with biotic and abiotic factors Role it plays in energy flow and matter cycling Fundamental Niche Full potential range of physical chemical and biological conditions and resources it could theoretically use if there was no direct competition from other species Realized Niche Part of its niche actually occupied Generalist vs. Specialist Lives many different places, eat many foods, tolerate a wide range of conditions vs few, few, intolerant Which strategy is better in a stable environment vs unstable?

Niche Overlap

Number of individuals

Niche separation Generalist species with a narrow niche Generalist species with a broad niche

Niche breadth Region of niche overlap Resource use

Competition Shrinks Niches

Key Concepts:

A species consist of one or more populations of individuals that can interbreed and produce offspring

Populations of a species have a shared genetic history

Speciation is the process by which daughter species evolve from a parent species

Key Concepts:

Geographic barriers can start the process of speciation

Allopatric speciation

With sympatric speciation, a species can form within the range of a parent species Parapatric speciation has adjacent populations becoming distinct species while still coming in contact along a common border

What is a Species?

Morphological Species Concept

Based on appearance alone

Biological Species Concept

A species is one or more populations of individuals that are interbreeding under natural conditions and producing fertile offspring, and are reproductively isolated from other such populations

Speciation

Two species arise from one

Requires Reproductive isolation

Geographic: Physically separated Temporal: Mate at different times Behavioral: Bird calls / mating rituals Anatomical: Picture a mouse and an elephant hooking up Genetic Inviability: Mules

Allopatric

Speciation that occurs when 2 or more populations of a species are geographically isolated from one another The allele frequencies in these populations change Members become so different that that can no no longer interbreed See animation Populations evolve with overlapping ranges Behavioral barrier or hybridization or polyploidy

Sympatric

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms

Any heritable feature of body, form, functioning, or behavior that prevents breeding between one or more genetically divergent populations Prezygotic or Postzygotic

Pre-Zygotic Isolation

Mating or zygote formation is blocked

Temporal Isolation Behavioral Isolation

Mechanical Isolation
Ecological Isolation Gamete Mortality

The Case of the Road-Killed Snails

Study of neighboring populations of snails Genetic variation is greater between populations living on opposite sides of the street

Color -

3 alleles of a gene

Temporal Isolation in Apple Maggots

Fig. 18.10, p. 290

Post-Zygotic Isolation

Hybrids dont work

Zygotic mortality - Egg is fertilized but zygote or embryo dies

Hybrid inviability - First generation hybrid forms but shows low fitness
Hybrid infertility - Hybrid is fully or partially sterile

Speciation
Northern population Spreads northward and southward and separates Arctic Fox Different environmental conditions lead to different selective pressures and evolution into two different species.
Adapted to cold through heavier fur, short ears, short legs, short nose. White fur matches snow for camouflage.

Early fox population

Southern population

Gray Fox

Adapted to heat through lightweight fur and long ears, legs, and nose, which give off more heat.

Allopatric Speciation

Physical barrier prevents gene flow between populations of a species

Archipelago hotbed of speciation

Allopatric Speciation

New arrival in species

Poor habitats on an isolated archipelago

Start of allopatric speciation

Hawaiian Honeycreepers

Sympatric Speciation

New species forms within home range

Polyploidy leads to speciation in plants Self-fertilization and asexual reproduction

Extinction

The ultimate fate of all species just as death is for all individual organisms 99.9% of all the species that have ever existed are now extinct

To a very close approximation, all species are extinct Low rate vs. 25-90% of total Five great mass extinctions in which numerous new species (including mammals) evolved to fill new or vacated niches in changed environments 10 million years or more for adaptive radiations to rebuild biological diversity following a mass extinction

Background vs. Mass Extinction

Extinction in the context of Evolution

If the environment changes rapidly and The species living in these environments do not already possess genes which enable survival in the face of such change and Random mutations do not accumulate quickly enough then All members of the unlucky species may die

Era

Period

Millions of

years ago Cenozoic Quaternary Today 65 Cretaceous Mesozoic Jurassic 180 Triassic 250 Permian Carboniferous Paleozoic 345 Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian 500

Bar width represents relative number of living species

Species and families experiencing mass extinction

Current extinction crisis caused by human activities. Cretaceous: up to 80% of ruling reptiles (dinosaurs); many marine species including many foraminiferans and mollusks. Triassic: 35% of animal families, including many reptiles and marine mollusks. Permian: 90% of animal families, including over 95% of marine species; many trees, amphibians, most bryozoans and brachiopods, all trilobites. Devonian: 30% of animal families,

Extinction

Tertiary
Extinction

Extinction

Extinction

Extinction

Extinction

Ordovician: 50% of animal families,

Biodiversity

Speciation Extinction=Biodiversity
Humans major force in the premature extinction of species. Extinction rate increased by 100-1000 times the natural background rate. As we grow in population over next 50 years, we are expected to take over more of the earths surface and productivity. This may cause the premature extinction of up to a QUARTER of the earths current species and constitute a SIXTH mass extinction

Genetic engineering wont solve this problem Only takes existing genes and moves them around

Know why this is so important and what we are losing as it disappears.