Machine Design 1
Lecture 5
Engineering Materials
Engineering Materials- Families and classes
Engineering Materials - Strength
• Metals and metal alloys
• Ceramics
• Polymers
• Elastomers
• Natural Materials
• Composite Materials
• Foams
Engineering Materials – Young’s Modulus
• Metals and metal alloys
• Ceramics
• Polymers
• Elastomers
• Natural Materials
• Composite Materials
• Foams
Tension Test
• A tension test is one of the simplest and basic tests and determines values of number of parameters
concerned with mechanical properties of materials like strength, ductility and toughness.
The following information can be obtained from a tension test:
• (i) Proportional limit
• (ii) Elastic limit
• (iii) Modulus of elasticity
• (iv) Yield strength
• (v) Ultimate tension strength
• (vi) Modulus of resilience
The standard gauge length l0 is given by,
• (vii) Modulus of toughness
• (viii) Percentage elongation
• (ix) Percentage reduction in area
*The shape and dimensions of this specimen are standardized. They should conform to IS 1608 : 1972.
Stress-Strain diagram
• Deformation of gauge length, is measured by an
extensometer.
• The procedure of measuring the tension force and
corresponding deformation is continued till fracture.
• The tensile force divided by the original cross-
sectional area of the specimen gives stress.
• The deformation divided by gauge length gives the
strain in the specimen.
• (i) Proportional Limit: The term proportional limit is defined as the
stress at which the stress-strain curve begins to deviate from the straight
line.
• (ii) Modulus of Elasticity:The modulus of elasticity or Young’s
modulus (E) is the ratio of stress to strain up to the point P.
• (iii) Elastic Limit: The elastic limit of the material is defined as
the maximum stress without any permanent deformation.
• (iv) Yield Strength: The yield strength is defined as the
maximum stress at which a marked increase in elongation occurs
without an increase in the load
• (v) Ultimate Tensile Strength: The stress corresponding to the
point U is called the ultimate strength. The ultimate tensile
strength is the maximum stress that can be reached in the tension
test.
• (vi) Percentage Elongation: The percentage elongation is
defined as the ratio of the increase in the length of the gauge
section of the specimen to the original gauge length, expressed in
percent.
• (vii) Percentage Reduction in Area: The ratio of decrease in
the cross-sectional area of the specimen after fracture to the
original cross-sectional area, expressed in percent.
• If the loading is stopped at point Y, at a stress level slightly
higher than the elastic limit E, and the specimen is unloaded and
readings are taken, the curve would follow the dotted line, and a
permanent set or plastic deformation will exist.
• The strain corresponding to this permanent deformation is
indicated by OA.
• For such materials, that do not exhibit a well-defined yield point,
the yield strength is defined as the stress corresponding to a
permanent set of 0.2% of gauge length.
• In such cases, the yield strength is determined by the offset
method.
• The point of intersection of this line and the stress–strain curve is
called Y or the yield point and the corresponding stress is called
0.2% yield strength.
• Proof Strength: 0.1% Proof strength, denoted by symbol Rp0.1, is
defined as the stress that will produce a permanent extension of 0.1%
in the gauge length of the test specimen.
• The proof load is the force corresponding to proof stress.
• Proof Strength is used in the design of fasteners.
Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials
• Strength: Material’s resistance to external forces.
• Elasticity: Ability to regain shape after deformation when external
load is removed.
• Plasticity: Ability to retain permanent deformation.
• Stiffness: Resistance to deformation under external load.
• Modulus of Elasticity is the measure of Stiffness.
• Resilience: Absorption and release of energy in elastic deformation.
• Toughness: Energy absorption before fracture.
• Malleability: Ability to deform under compressive force.
• Ductility: Ability to deform under tensile force.
• Brittleness: Brittleness is the property of a material which shows
negligible plastic deformation before fracture takes place.
• Hardness: Resistance to penetration or permanent deformation.
• Understanding these properties helps in selecting materials for
different applications, considering factors like strength, deformation,
and resistance to wear.
• The selection of a material for a machine part or structural member is
one of the most important decisions the designer is called on to make.
• The selection process can be as involved as any design problem with
the evaluation of the many material physical, economical, and
processing parameters.
• There are systematic and optimizing approaches to material selection.
• Here, for illustration, we will only look at how to approach some
material properties.
• One basic technique is to list all the important material properties associated with the design,
e.g., strength, stiffness, and cost.
• This can be prioritized by using a weighting measure depending on what properties are more
important than others.
• Next, for each property, list all available materials and rank them in order beginning with the
best material
• For completeness of available materials, this might require a large source of material data.
• Once the lists are formed, select a manageable amount of materials from the top of each list.
• From each reduced list select the materials that are contained within every list for further
review.
• The materials in the reduced lists can be graded within the list and then weighted according
to the importance of each property.
Theories of Failure