CHAPTER FOUR

Motivation
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What is Motivation?
• Scientists have defined motivation as the process of
arousing, directing, and maintaining behaviour
toward a goal.
• It is the willingness to exert high level of effort to
reach organizational goals conditioned by the efforts
& abilities to satisfy some individual need.
 The processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal.

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 Conti…
Needs : are deficiencies that energize or trigger
behaviors to satisfy those needs.

Key
KeyElements
ElementsininMotivation
Motivation
1.1. Intensity:
Intensity:how
howhard
hardaaperson
persontries
tries
2.2. Direction:
Direction:toward
towardbeneficial
beneficialgoal
goal
3.3. Persistence:
Persistence:how
howlong
longaaperson
persontries
tries

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• The driving force within individuals by which
they attempt to achieve some goal in order to
fulfill some needs or expectation.
• The degree to which an individual wants to
choose in certain behavior.
Qualities of Motivation:
• Energizes behavior
• Directs behavior
• Enable persistence towards a goal
• Exists in varying details
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MOTIVATION AS A PROCESS
• It is a process by which a person’s
efforts are energized, directed and
sustained towards attaining the goal.
*Energy- A measure of intensity or drive.
*Direction- Towards organizational goal.
*Persistence- Exerting effort to achieve
goal

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 Characteristics of motivation
1. It is individual phenomenon
2. Motivation is intentional
3. Motivation has many facets
4. Motivation theories

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 Theories of motivation
• There are two kinds of theories of motivation
 Content Theory of Motivation 'and
 Process Theory of Motivation.’
• Content theories of motivation is based on the type of needs
that people had and the way these needs could be satisfied
so that people would be motivated.
• These theories include :
 Maslow’s need hierarchy;
 Herzberg ‘s two factor theory;
 McClelland’s theory of power, affiliation, and achievement
motives
 Alderfer’s three groups of core needs theory: existence,
relatedness, and growth (EGR model).
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• ‘Process Theory of Motivation.’ theories are
more concerned with the cognitive
antecedent that go in to motivation or effort
and with the way they affect each other.
• These theories include:
 Vroom’s theory of work motivation based on
valence and expectancy.
 Equity theory
 McGregor’s theories X and Y,
 Ouchi’s theory Z.

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 Motivation theories
1. Needs- based Motivation Theories
 Assume that need deficiencies cause behavior.
 Humans are motivated primarily by deficiencies in
one or more important needs or need categories.
 Therefore, need theories attempt to identify &
categorize the needs that are most important to
people. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, ERG theory,
two-factor theory, David McClelland’s Theory of
Needs are the major ones

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 A. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Self
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological

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 Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy
1. Only unsatisfied need can influence behavior, a
satisfied need is not a motivator
2. A person’s needs are arranged in a priority order of
importance
3. Individuals cannot move to the next higher level
until all needs at the current (lower) level are
satisfied.
4. If satisfaction is not maintained for a once –satisfied
need, it will become a priority need again

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 Conti…
 There is a hierarchy of five needs—physiological,
safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each
need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes
dominant.
 Self-Actualization: The drive to become what one is
capable of becoming.
 Lower-Order Needs- needs that are externally
satisfied. They include physiological & safety needs
 Higher-Order Needs- needs that are internally
satisfied- social, esteem & self actualization needs

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 B. ERG theory
 It was developed by Clayton Alderfer to
overcome the problems with Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs.

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 Maslow’s hierarchy ERG theory

Self - Actualization Growth

Esteem

Belongingness Relatedness

Safety Existence

Physiological

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 Difference between Maslow’s need hierarchy
and ERG
 ERG states more than one levels of need can cause
motivation at the same time.
 ERG has Frustration-Regression process (if needs
of higher level remain unsatisfied the individual
become frustrated and regress to the lower level
needs again) which do not exist in Maslow’s need
hierarchy

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 C. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• The theory uncovered one set of factors that produce
job satisfaction & motivation and another set of
factors that lead to job dissatisfaction.
• Factors that can produce dissatisfaction are called
hygiene factors. Those that can produce job
satisfaction are called motivation factors
• Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction are not Opposite
Ends of the Same Thing!

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Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

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 Conti…
Hygiene Factors: Motivators:
• Salary • Achievement
• Work Conditions • Responsibility
• Company Policies • Growth
• Job security • The work it self
• Supervision • Recognition
• Interpersonal
relationship

Extrinsic & Related to Intrinsic and Related

Dissatisfaction to Satisfaction
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 D. McClelland’s Need Theory

• Need for Achievement-The desire to

excel and succeed
• Need for Power –The need to
influence the behavior of others.
• Need for Affiliation –The desire for
interpersonal relationship.

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 2. Process theories
• Process theories assume:
 People exert effort toward obtaining goal-related
rewards as long as they hold expectancy that the
rewards can be achieved
 People are rational and autonomous beings
 Effort is sustained while goal directed actions are
proven to be successful

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 A. Expectancy theory/Victor Vroom
 Expectancy refers person's perception about the
probability that a particular behavior will be
followed by a certain outcome.
 Expectancy theory says that a person’s motivation to
behave in a certain way is determined by:
a. the effort required for performance
b. whether the performance will have desired
outcome
c. how valuable the outcome is to the employee

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 Conti…
It states that a person’s motivation is determined
by:
1. Expectation: will the effort achieve
performance?
2. Instrumentality: what is the possibility of a
certain performance lead to desired
outcome/reward?
3. Valence: how attractive is the reward ?

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• Force: the motivation to choose a particular
course of action.
Force  E  (V * I )
Where:
E= Expectancy (probability that effort leads to
performance)
V=Valence (rating of how satisfying various
rewards will be)
I=Instrumentality (relationship between taking
this option and gaining this reward)

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Expectancy: Instrumentality: Valence: Do
Can I do the What are the likely I value the Effort
task? outcomes? outcomes?

Implications for managers

 Motivation is influenced by a person’s
perception of the outcome
Effective communication of desired
behavior and outcomes
Link rewards to performance

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 B. Equity theory
• Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes
with those of others and then respond to eliminate
any inequities.
• People are influenced in their behavior choices by
relative rewards they either receive or are going to
receive.
• Equity is related to the concept of fairness and equal
treatment compared with others who behave in
similar ways

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 Conti…

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 Ways to restore equity
• Change inputs or outcomes
• Change referent’s inputs or outcomes
• Change perception of the situation
• Change the referent
• Leave the job or organization

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 Implications
• An employee’s motivation is affected by both
the absolute and relative rewards
• Employees make conscious comparisons of
equity that influence their motivational levels

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C. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

• Theory X – Assumption that

workers generally dislike work and
must be forced to do their jobs.

• Theory Y – Humanistic view of

management. Assumption workers
like to work and seek out
responsibility to satisfy social,
esteem, and self-actualization needs.

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D. William Ouchi Theory Z

• A management philosophy
that stresses employee
participation in all aspects
of company decision
making

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 E. Reinforcement theory
• Argues that behavior is a function of its
consequences.
Assumptions:
Assumptions:
••Behavior
Behaviorisisenvironmentally
environmentallycaused.
caused.
••Behavior
Behaviorcan
canbe
bemodified
modified(reinforced)
(reinforced)
by
byproviding
providing(controlling)
(controlling)
consequences.
consequences.
••Reinforced
Reinforcedbehavior
behaviortends
tendsto
tobe
be
repeated.
repeated.
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Case Study
The manager of A.B.C. Ltd. Realized that the
level of moral and motivation of their
employees was very low and there was
dissatisfaction among the employees. Labor
productivity was also found to be very low.
After investigating the causes of
dissatisfaction, the managers decided that if
employees were to be motivated, there was a
need to establish and maintain good
interpersonal relation, over and above good
salary, job security, proper working conditions
and supervision.
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So they put in sincere efforts to improve all
these factors during one year. Yet, surprisingly,
they came to know that in spite of reduction in
the degree of dissatisfaction, the level of morale
and motivation was low and there was no
significant increase in their productivity.
Therefore, the managers are worried.
•What managerial problem is involved in the
above case?
→Suggest a solution and make a definite stance
to justify the same.
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