Module 19: Optical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What phenomena occur when light is shined on a material?
• What determines the characteristic colors of materials?
• Why are some materials transparent and others are
translucent or opaque?

Chapter 21 - 1
 Optical Properties
Light has both particulate and wavelike characteristics
– Photon - a quantum unit of light

hc
E  h 


E  energy of a photon
   wavelength of radiation
  frequency of radiation
h  Planck’ s constant (6.62 x 10 34 J  s)
c  speed of light in a vacuum (3.00 x 108 m/s)

Chapter 21 - 2
 Refraction
• Transmitted light distorts electron clouds. electron
no cloud
transmitted transmitted
+ + distorts
light light

• The velocity of light in a material is lower than in a vacuum.

c (velocity of light in vacuum)
n = index of refraction 
v (velocity of light in medium)

-- Adding large ions (e.g., lead) to glass Material n

decreases the speed of light in the glass.
-- Light can be “bent” as it passes through a
Typical glasses ca. 1.5 -1.7
transparent prism Plastics 1.3 -1.6
PbO (Litharge) 2.67
Diamond 2.41
Selected values from Table 21.1,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 21 - 3
 Light Interactions with Solids
• Incident light is reflected, absorbed, scattered, and/or
transmitted: I0  IT  IA  IR  IS

Reflected: IR Absorbed: IA
Transmitted: IT
 Incident: I0
Scattered: IS
• Optical classification of materials:
Transparent Adapted from Fig. 21.10, Callister
Translucent 6e. (Fig. 21.10 is by J. Telford,
with specimen preparation by P.A.
Opaque Lessing.)

single polycrystalline polycrystalline

crystal dense porous
Chapter 21 - 4
 Optical Properties of Metals:
Absorption
• Absorption of photons by electron transitions:
Energy of electron
unfilled states
t o n
p ho E = h required!
ent h 
i d
Inc rg y
e ne
of filled states
Planck’s constant freq.
of
(6.63 x 10-34 J/s) incident
Adapted from Fig. 21.4(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
light
• Unfilled electron states are adjacent to filled states
• Near-surface electrons absorb visible light.
Chapter 21 - 5
 Reflection of Light for Metals
• Electron transition from an excited state produces a photon.

Energy of electron
IR unfilled states
“conducting” electron
photon emitted Electron transition
from metal
surface
filled states

Adapted from Fig. 21.4(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 21 - 6
Reflection of Light for Metals (cont.)
• Reflectivity = IR /I0 is between 0.90 and 0.95.
• Metal surfaces appear shiny
• Most of absorbed light is reflected at the
same wavelength
• Small fraction of light may be absorbed
• Color of reflected light depends on
wavelength distribution
– Example: The metals copper and gold absorb light
in blue and green => reflected light has gold color

Chapter 21 - 7
 Reflectivity of Nonmetals
• For normal incidence and light passing into a solid
having an index of refraction n:

n 12
R  reflectivity   
n  1

• Example: For Diamond n = 2.41

 2
 2.41  1 
R    0.17
 2.41  1
 17% of light is reflected

Chapter 21 - 8
 Selected Light Absorption in
Semiconductors
Absorption of light of frequency  by by electron transition
occurs if h > Egap
Energy of electron
Examples of photon energies:
unfilled states
blue light: h = 3.1 eV
red light: h = 1.8 eV

Egap
incident photon
energy h
filled states Adapted from Fig. 21.5(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

• If Egap < 1.8 eV, all light absorbed; material is opaque (e.g., Si, GaAs)
• If Egap > 3.1 eV, no light absorption; material is transparent and
colorless (e.g., diamond)
• If 1.8 eV < Egap < 3.1 eV, partial light absorption; material is colored
Chapter 21 - 9
 Color of Nonmetals
• Color determined by the distribution of wavelengths:
-- transmitted light
-- re-emitted light from electron transitions
• Example 1: Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Eg = 2.4 eV
-- absorbs higher energy visible light (blue, violet)
-- color results from red/orange/yellow light that is transmitted
• Example 2: Ruby = Sapphire (Al2O3) + (0.5 to 2) at% Cr2O3
-- Sapphire is transparent and

Transmittance (%)
80
sapphire
colorless (Eg > 3.1 eV) 70
-- adding Cr2O3 : 60
ruby
• alters the band gap 50
• blue and orange/yellow/green wavelength,  (= c/)(m)
40
light is absorbed 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
• red light is transmitted Adapted from Fig. 21.9, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 21.9 adapted from "The Optical Properties of
• Result: Ruby is deep Materials" by A. Javan, Scientific American, 1967.)
red in color
Chapter 21 -10
Applications of Optical
Phenomena

Chapter 21 -
 Luminescence
• Luminescence – reemission of light by a material
– Material absorbs light at one frequency and reemits it at
another (lower) frequency.
– Trapped (donor/acceptor) states introduced by
impurities/defects
Conduction band • If residence time in trapped state is
relatively long (> 10-8 s)
-- phosphorescence

• For short residence times (< 10-8 s)

trapped -- fluorescence
Eemission
Eg states
Example: Toys that glow in the
dark. Charge toys by exposing
activator them to light. Reemission of light
level over time—phosphorescence

Valence band
Chapter 21 -12
 Photoluminescence
When photons impinge on a material which in turn re-emits light
of a lower energy
Hg atom

UV light

electrode electrode
• Arc between electrodes excites electrons in mercury atoms in the
lamp to higher energy levels.
• As electron falls back into their ground states, UV light is emitted
(e.g., suntan lamp).
• Inside surface of tube lined with material that absorbs UV and
reemits visible light
- For example, Ca10F2P6O24 with 20% of F - replaced by Cl -
• Adjust color by doping with metal cations
Sb3+ blue
Chapter 21 -
Mn2+ orange-red
13
• Electroluminescence – light emission as a
consequence of an applied voltage or electric
field.
• Cathodoluminescence – light emission from a
substance that has been showered by electrons of
higher energy.

Chapter 21 -
 The LASER
• The laser generates light waves that are in phase
(coherent) and that travel parallel to one another

– LASER
• Light
• Amplification by
• Stimulated
• Emission of
• Radiation

• Operation of laser involves a population inversion of

energy states process

Chapter 21 -15
 Population Inversion
• More electrons in excited energy states than in ground states

Fig. 21.14, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 21 -16
 Other Applications - Solar Cells
• p-n junction: • Operation:
-- incident photon of light produces elec.-hole pair.
P-doped Si -- typical potential of 0.5 V produced across junction
conductance Si -- current increases w/light intensity.
electron creation of
Si P Si hole-electron
light pair
Si - - -
n-type Si
p-n junction -
n-type Si p-type Si +
p-n junction + + +
p-type Si
• Solar powered weather station:
hole Si

Si B Si

Si
B-doped Si polycrystalline Si
Los Alamos High School weather
station (photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)

Chapter 21 -17
 SUMMARY
• Light radiation impinging on a material may
be reflected
from, absorbed within, and/or transmitted
through
• Light transmission characteristics:
-- transparent, translucent, opaque
• Optical properties of metals:
-- opaque and highly reflective due to electron energy
band
structure.
• Optical properties of non-Metals:
-- for Egap < 1.8 eV, absorption of all wavelengths of light radiation
-- for Egap > 3.1 eV, no absorption of visible light radiation
-- for 1.8 eV < Egap < 3.1 eV, absorption of some range of light
radiation wavelengths
-- color determined by wavelength distribution of transmitted light
• Other important optical Chapter 21 -18