Arba Minch University

Department of Food Science and Post harvest

Technology

Food Chemistry (FSPT 1073)

By: Halabo H. (MSc.)
Lecture -1
Water
1.1. Structure and Property of Water
 Covers 75% of Earth’s surface

97% oceans

3% freshwater

2% (of Total) in ice caps and glaciers

1% in lakes, underground, or in atmosphere (usable by humans)

 Makes up approximately 70% of the human body

92% of blood plasma

80% of muscle tissues

60% of red blood cells

 Structure of water

 One oxygen atom and two

hydrogen atoms=H2O

 Hydrogen atoms linked covalently

 Not symmetrical charge distribution

 Electrons spend more time near the oxygen and less near the
hydrogen
Cont…
Interactions between water molecules

+ve attracted to –ve

 Each H2O is bonded to its
nearest neighbor
 Properties of water

 It is clear, colorless, odorless, and tasteless

• Colors, tastes and odors are caused by substances dissolved in the

water. But is water Shapeless or not?
 Boils at 100°C- due to extensive hydrogen bonding b/w molecules

 Freezes at 0°C
1. Polar
 Water molecule is a polar molecule with opposite ends of the molecule with

opposite charges.

In a water molecule two hydrogen atoms form single polar covalent bonds with

an oxygen atom.

• Because oxygen is more electronegative, the region around oxygen has a

partial negative charge.

• The region near the two hydrogen atoms has a partial positive charge.
 Cont…

 The charge difference makes the water molecule to attract each other and with
other polar molecules.
 The slightly negative regions of one molecule are attracted to the slightly
positive regions of nearby molecules, forming a hydrogen bond.
 Each water molecule can form hydrogen bonds with up to four neighbors.

Fig-1. Hydrogen bond among water molecules

 2. Cohesion and adhesion
• Cohesion- is the ability of water molecules to stick each other, it happens due
to strong intermolecular interaction.

- The cohesion of water molecules leads to two other important properties:

a. Surface Tension – the attraction between water molecules at the surface of the liquid

b. High Specific Heat – it takes a lot of energy to warm up water and it takes a very long

time for warm water to cool off

• Adhesion- water molecules stick to other substances or object, due to its polarity

- adhesion helps the water molecule to act as a universal solvent

and capillary action.

- Capillary action is the movement of water to “climb” objects against the forces

of gravity.
 3. Surface Tension

 Water has a greater surface tension than most other liquids because hydrogen
bonds among surface water molecules resist stretching or breaking the surface.
Water behaves as if covered by an invisible film.
Some animals can stand, walk, or run on water without interruption.

Fig-2. Surface tension

 4. High Specific heat

o Specific Heat is the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for one gram of

a substance to change its temperature by 1oC.

o Water stabilizes air temperatures by absorbing heat from warmer air and

releasing heat to cooler air.

o Water can absorb or release relatively large amounts of heat with only a slight

change in its own temperature.

o Water resists temperature change, both for heating and cooling.

 Cont…

At the beach, why is the sand hotter than water at noon but cooler than water
at midnight?
 5. Density
 Density of water = 1.0 g/mL (at 4°C)
 Water is- Most dense at 4oC
- Contracts until 4oC
- Expands from 4oC to 0oC
 The density of water:
1. Prevents water from freezing from the bottom up.
2. Ice forms on the surface first, the freezing of the water releases heat to the
water below creating insulation.
3. Makes transition between season less abrupt.
 6. Low Viscosity

 Water has low viscosity because of the structure that has been described since
hydrogen bond arrangements of water molecule are highly dynamic, allowing
individual molecule within time frame of Nano to Pico seconds to alter their
hydrogen bonding relationship with neighboring molecule, thereby facilitate the
mobility and fluidity.
 1.2. Dispersed system

 The term "Disperse System" refers to a system in which one

substance (the dispersed phase) is distributed, in discrete units,
throughout a second substance (the continuous phase or vehicle).
 Each phase can exist in solid, liquid, or gaseous state
 Most foods are dispersed system, a few are homogenous solution
like cooking oil. But even beer has foam which contains bubbles.
 Cont…
 A dispersion is a system of discrete particles are in a continuous
fluid phase.
 Dispersion (dispersed system) is a mixtures of two substances, one
of which (dispersed phase) is distributed in form of subdivided
particles throughout another substance (continuous phase,
dispersion medium).
 The substance that is dispersed is known as the dispersed (or)
internal phase, and a continuous (or) external phase (or) vehicle.
 Cont…

Particles must be dispersed in a second phase. (Note that the particles are the

dispersed phase and the phase they are dispersed in is the continuous phase).

Depending on what the phases are (solid, liquid, gas) it is possible to generate

different types of colloidal system. Their names and some examples are given in

the following table:

 Classification of desperse systems
Continuous phase (External Phase)
Solid Liquid Gas
Dispersed phase (Internal

Solid Solid glass (e.g. Suspension, Sol Smoke cloud,

Frozen food) (Molten chocolate) powder, air particles
phase)

Liquid Gel (agar, gelatin) Emulsion (cream, Fog, Aerosol (hair

milk) immiscible Sprays)

Gas Solid foam Foam (e.g. Beer) None

(whipped candy) (All gases are
mutually miscible)
 Types of dispersion

Based on the particle size of the dispersed phase, dispersions are generally
classified as:
 Molecular dispersions- have dispersed particles lower than 1.0 nm in size
 Colloidal dispersions- have particle sizes between 1 nm and 1 mm.

microemulsions, nanoparticles, microspheres are

some of the examples of colloidal dispersions
 Coarse dispersions- have particle size greater than 1 mm, which includes

suspensions and emulsions.

 The existence of a dispersed state has some important
consequences:

 Enhancing flavor of the food, when flavor components may be in separate

compartments, which may slow down their release during eating this may lead to
fluctuations in flavor release during eating. Thus, most “compartmentalized” foods taste
quite different from the same food that has been homogenized before eating.

 It may have significant consequences for chemical reactions. Since different

components are in different compartments, there is no thermodynamic equilibrium. To be
sure, even a homogeneous food may not be in equilibrium, but for dispersed systems this
is a much more important aspect.
 Cont…
 Improve consistency of the food, attractive forces act between structural
elements, the system has a certain consistency, which is defined as its resistance
against permanent deformation. This may be an important functional property as it
is related to attributes such as stand-up, spreadability, or ease of cutting. Moreover,
consistency affects mouth feel.

 The visual appearance of the system may be greatly affected. This is due to the
scattering of light by structural elements, provided they are larger than about 50
nm. Large in homogeneities are visible as such and give rise to texture.
 Cont…

 Since the system is physically inhomogeneous, at least at a microscopic scale, it

may be physically unstable.
Several kinds of change may occur during storage, which may be perceived as
the development of macroscopic in homogeneity, such as separation into layers.
Moreover, during processing or usage, changes in the dispersed state may occur,
which may be desirable as in the whipping of cream or undesirable as in
overwhipping of cream, where butter granules are formed.
 Lecture-2
Physical and Chemical Properties of Major
Food Components
 2.1. Carbohydrates

 Most abundant class of compounds found in nature

 Make the average human diet, supplying half or more of the total
caloric intake

 They are composed of C, H and O in a hydrated carbon (CH20)

proportion

 Cn(H2O)n
26
 Cont…
• Based on the number of sugar units they can be:
Carbohydrates

Simple Complex

Monosaccharide Disaccharides

Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides

27
 Monosaccharides
Can not be reduced in to smaller carbohydrate units by hydrolytic
enzymes

Contain 3-7 carbon atoms and are termed trioses, tetroses, pentoses,
hexoses and heptoses

The most nutritionally important monosaccharide is glucose

– Glucose
– Galactose
– Fructose
28
 Monosaccharides are the same in the number and kind of atoms, C6H12O6
(isomers) but differ in their arrangements and which result in difference their
degree of sweetness.

 Fructose > Galactose > Glucose

Fructose Galactose Glucose

 Physical property of monosaccharides

1. Monosaccharides are easily soluble in water and give a sweet taste.

2. After dissolving in water, monosaccharides can move across the plasma
membrane of the cell. (Or it is said that there is carrier enzyme on plasma
membrane that can carry monosaccharides across the plasma membrane.)
But disaccharides not
3. After dissolving in water, monosaccharide would lower the water potential
of the water body.
4. After dropped into water, monosaccharides would coil up to form pentagon
rings or hexagon rings.
30
Glucose, when dissolved in water, would form a hexagonal
structure called glucopyranose.

31
This is the change

32
 Chemical property of monosaccharides

 The most important chemical property of monosaccharides is the Reducing

power.
 The standard of the reducing power of carbohydrate is the power to reduce
copper (II) ion (Cu2+) in alkaline solution into the Cu2O brick-red precipitate.
 If a sugar can do this, It is said to be a reducing sugar.
 If it cannot, It is said to be a non-reducing sugar
 All monosaccharides are reducing sugars
 Benedict’s Test and Fehling’s Test are tests Applying this concept.
 So, they are said to be the Tests for reducing sugars
33
 Test for Reducing sugar
 A reducing sugar can be easily oxidized.
 Benedict’s reagent tests for reducing sugars:
 Reducing sugar + Cu2+ → oxidized compound + Cu2O
blue Orange red precipitate

From left to right, three test tubes The addition of Benedict’s reagent
containing Benedict’s reagent, 0.5% produces colors (due to the red Cu2O)
glucose solution, and 2.0% glucose that indicate the amount of glucose
solution present.
 Cont…
 Based up on the functional group monosaccharides can be:

 Aldose- contain- COOH

 Ketose- contain- CH2OH

CO
 Cont…

Aldose and ketose

2,3dihydroxypropanal

Hexoses 36
 Configuration

 The base to classify monosaccharides as  and  is the position of the hydroxyl

group from the anomeric carbon (C1).
 if the hydroxyl group is above the anomeric carbon it is termed as -position.

 While the hydroxyl group is below the anomeric carbon it is named as -

position.
 The above designation works for D-sugars. For L-sugars the reverse is
true.
 Designation of D and L is based up on the position of second hydroxyl group. If
it is on the right it is called D-sugar and on the left it is named as L-sugar.
 CHO sterioisomers
α- anomer-OH group is down
– Haworth projection
Fisher projection
β- anomer-OH group is up
– Haworth projection

D- second OH is to the right

– Fisher projection
Haworth projection
L- second OH is to the left
-- Fisher projection

α-D-an OH to the right (Fischer) is down (Haworth)

38
 Cont…
• Monosaccharides of the D configuration are much more important nutritionally
than the L isomers because enzymes involved in digestion and metabolism are
steriospecifc for D sugars

• An example of steriospecificity is the action of α-amylase to starch which is a

polyglucose polymer connected through an α-linkage

39
 Cont…

• Cellulose is resistant to the α-amylase hydrolysis because of

β-linkages of glucose molecules

40
 Disaccharides
Consist of two monosaccharide units attached by a glycosidic
bond (between reducing group on monosaccharide and
hydroxyl group of the other) with the elimination of one water
molecule = condensation

41
 Disaccharides
– Maltose = Glucose + Glucose

– Lactose = Glucose + Galactose

– Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose

42
Condensation reaction

Hydrolysis reaction

43
 Cont…

Maltose
– Formed primarily from hydrolysis of starch
– Found in malt beverages such as beer and malted liquor

Lactose
– Found naturally in milk and milk products
– Milk sugar

44
 Cont…

Sucrose
– The most widely distributed of the disaccharides
– Found in cane sugar, beet sugar…

45
 Chemical property of disaccharides
 In maltose and lactose, there is still one alcohol group attaching the 1st
carbon not engaged in the formation of glycosidic bond. It is
reductable. So, they are still reducing sugars.

 In sucrose, both reductable alcohol groups are involved in the formation

of glycosidic bond. So, it is a non-reducing sugar.

46
 Oligosaccharides
• Glycosidic link connects the reducing group of one sugar molecule to
one of the hydroxyl groups on another

• Consists of monosaccharides(3-20)
– Raffinose (trisaccharide)
– Stachyose (a tetrasaccharide)
– Verbascose (a pentasaccharide)

• Found in Beans, Peas, Bran and whole grains

• Can not be digested by human enzymes but can be digested by
intestinal bacteria and are the cause of flatulence
47
 Polysaccharides
Are long chains of monosaccharide units from 20 to 500,000

– Homopolysaccharide- e.g. Starch- polymer of glucose

– Hetropolysaccharide

Major polysaccharides of interest in nutrition are glycogens, starch

and cellulose

48
 Properties of polysaccharides

• Polysaccharides have a high molecular mass

• Insoluble in water

• Tasteless

• Give negative tests for reducing sugars

These properties are the opposite of those for monosaccharide's and

disaccharides
49
 Starch
• Most common digestible polysaccharide in plants

– Amylose
• Linear chain of glucose molecules (joined by α,1 4 glycosidic bonds)

– Amylopectin

• Highly branched chain of glucose molecule (joined by α,1 4 glycosidic

bonds but some of glucose molecules are involved in α,1 6 )

Found in cereals, legumes and other vegetables

50
Cont…

51
 Cont…

Fig. Glycogen and starch molecules

Source: Understanding nutrition

52
 Glycogen
The major form of storage carbohydrate in animal tissue

Localized primarily in liver and skeletal muscle

More branched even more than amylopectin

Glucose molecules cleaved enzymatically are released into the

blood to enter energy releasing pathway of metabolism
glycogenolysis

53
 Cellulose
Major component of the cell wall
 Fiber, legnin, gums, pectins, resistant starch

Is a homopolysaccharide of glucose but the glycosidic bonds are β,1 4

linkages making the molecule resistant to human digestive enzymes b/c
human digestive enzymes are steriospecifc and work only on glycosidic bond
with α linkages.
Is considered as a dietary fiber
Can be digested by colonic bacteria and produce short chain fatty acids

54
 Dietary-Fibers
A. Soluble fibers
• Are fermented easily by bacteria in the colon
• Associated with protecting against heart disease and diabetes by lowering
blood cholesterol
• Found in Oats, barely, legumes and citrus fruits

55
 Cont…

B. Insoluble fibers:
– Are not readily fermentable
– adds bulk to the fecal matter and promote bowel movement and
alleviate constipation

– Delays absorption of other nutrients in to the body system

56
 2.2. Lipids

What is the difference between

fat and oils?
 LIPIDS
Fat and oils
Fats-are solid at room temperature
Oils-are liquid at room temperature
Like carbohydrates they are made up of C, H and O but
contains less amount of O as compared with carbohydrates
Include:
• triglycerides
• phospholipids
• sterols

58
 Cont…

LIPIDS

Simple Complex
Fatty Acid
Glycerol

Phospholipids Glycolipids
Fatty Acid

Glycerophospholipids Sphingolipids
Fatty Acid
Fatty Acid Fatty Acid

Sphingosin
Glycerol

Fatty Acid

e
PO4 Alcohol PO4 Choline
59
 Triglycerides

• Contains one molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids

• Linked by ester bond

60
 Fatty Acids
• A chain of carbon atoms with hydrogen attached-that has an
acidic group at one end (COOH) and methyl group at another
end(CH3)

61
 Cont…
They can be 4-24 carbon atoms long
They are either saturated or unsaturated
The unsaturated fatty acids can have one(monounsaturated) or
more (polyunsaturated) point of unsaturation

Oleic acid(18-C, mono)

Linoleic acid(18-C,Poly )
62
 Cont…
• Degree of saturation(length of carbon chain) also determines
firmness such that the polyunsaturated fatty acids are liquid while
the more saturated fatty acids are solid

• Hydrogenation-
Treatment of an oil with hydrogen and a suitable catalyst to
decrease the number of double bonds and increase the degree of
saturation

63
 Cont…

Hydrogenation

64
 Cont…

Merits of Hydrogenation
• Enhances firmness, oxidative stability, and extends shelf life
Demerits of Hydrogenation
• However, it may induce formation of trans-fats

65
 Cis- and trans configurations

Insertion of a kink of about

42o

66
 Unsaturated fatty acids
Also differ in the location of the double bonds

Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be identified by the position of

the double bonds nearest to the methyl end of the carbon
chain=Omega

The omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are of special

importance in nutrition

67
Omega-3 and omega-6 FA

68
 Cont…
Saturated acids
Systematic name Common name Structure
n-Butanoic Butyric 4:0
n-Hexanoic Caproic 6:0
n-Octanoic Caprylic 8:0
n-Decanoic Capric 10:0
n-Dodecanoic Lauric 12:0
n-Tetradecanoic Myristic 14:0
n-Hexadecanoic Palmitic 16:0
n-Octadecanoic Stearic 18:0
n-Eicosanoic Arachidic 20:0

69
 Cont…
Unsaturated acids
Systematic name Common name Structure

Cis 9-Hexadecenoic Palmitoleic 16:1Δ9

Cis-9-Octadecenoic Oleic 18:1Δ9
Cis,cis-9,12-Octadecadienoic Linoleic 18:2Δ9,12
all-cis-9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic α-Linolenic 18:3Δ9,12,15

all-cis-5,8,11,14-Eicosatetraenoic Arachidonic 20:4Δ5,8,11,14

All-cis-7,10,13,16,19- Clupanodonic 22:5Δ7,10,13,16,19

Docosapentaenoic
Complex lipids
 Phospholipids
Are similar to triglycerides with glycerol backbone and two
fatty acids. But, the third site is occupied by a phosphate group
Hydrophobic or Non-polar Tail

H O
H C O C
O
H C O C
O CH3
H C O P OCH2CH2N
+ CH3
H O CH3

Polar Head Group

72
 Cont…

They had hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail.

The fatty acid portion of phospholipids makes them soluble in
fats, and the phosphate group allows them to be soluble in
water=Emulsifiers
They can help fats and fat soluble vitamins move back and forth
across the cell membrane
Eg. Lecithin
73
 Sterols
The most famous sterol is the cholesterol
Both foods derived from animals and plants contain sterols,
but only those from animals contain significant amounts of
cholesterol-meat, egg, poultry, fish and dairy products
Plant/Phyto sterols being structurally similar with cholesterols,
interfere and reduce the absorption of cholesterol in to the
body

74
 Cont…

Fortification of food products with plant sterols to

create functional foods and reduce blood cholesterol

75
 Biological importance
Bile acids
Sex hormones (testosterone)
Vitamin D
Cholesterol

76
Transformations of Cholesterol:

OH

O
CH3 HO OH
O

CH3

O
HO
O
Cholesterol Cortisol
Progesterone OH

OH

OH

HO Testosterone
CH 2

Estradiol Vitamin D
HO OH
77
 Physical Properties of Lipids

 Greasy to touch and leaves an oily impression on paper.

 Are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
 Have less specific gravity than water (solid fat= 0.86), (liquid fat = 0.95)
 Pure glycerides are tasteless, odorless, colorless and neutral in reaction
(acidic-yellow color (hydrolysis & oxidation)
Hardness and consistency depends on the amount of saturated and unsaturated
fatty acids present. Saturated fatty acids are solid (room temperature) while
Unsaturated fatty acids are liquid (room temperature) (e.g. oils)

78
 Cont…

 Fats have definite melting points.

 When liquid fat is placed on water- it spreads uniformly over the surface of
water. If the quantity is small – it forms a layer of 1 molecule thickness (effect:
to lower surface tension- help transport fat)
 Though fat is insoluble in water- can be broken down into minute droplets
and dispersed in water (emulsification)
 Flavor of butter is due to the presence of bacterial flora; color of butter,
human fat and egg yolk (due to presence of carotene & xanthophil).

79
 Chemical Properties of Lipids

• Acrolein Formation – glycerol  heat + potassium bisulphate

• Hydrogenation – unsaturated fats (+nickel-catalyst) – saturated fats (“hardening”)
e.g vegetable oil – commercial cooking oil
• Saponification – hydrolysis of fat by alkali (glycerol + alkali salts = soap)
except Sterols
• Rancidity – chemical change resulting in unpleasant odor and taste on storage when
fats are exposed to light, heat, air and moisture.
– E.g. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) and Vitamin E are antioxidants (prevents
rancidity)
80
2.3. Proteins
 Proteins
The most abundant nitrogen-containing compound in the diet and in the body
They contain Nitrogen and sulphur in addition to C, H and O
Their building blocks are the amino acids
Meat, fish, dairy products , egg, legume, grain..are significant sources
of proteins

82
 Amino acids
All amino acids have the same basic structure a central carbon
with hydrogen atom, an amino group (NH2), and an acid
group(COOH) attached to it

The fourth attachment to the carbon called the side chains

distinguishes amino acids (R-group)

83
Structure of some amino acids

84
 The 20-aminoacids
• Leucine • Serine,
• Isoleucine, • Histidine,
• Valine, • Phenylalanine,
• Glutamate, • Tyrosine,
• Glutamine, • Tryptophan,
• Glutamate,
• Alanine,
• Arginine,
• Aspartate, • Cysteine,
• Methionine, • Glycine,
• Glysine, • Histidine,
• β-alanine
85
 Amino Acid categories
Essential amino acids
– Can’t be synthesized by the body at all or are synthesized in insufficient
quantities and thus must be obtained from diet
Eg. Valine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine,
Threonine, Tryptophan, Histidine
Non-essential amino acids
– Diet can deliver them to the body but the body can synthesize them for
itself given nitrogen to form the amino group and fragments from
carbohydrate or fat to form the rest of the structure
86
 Cont…
Conditionally essential amino acids
– Are non-essential amino acids at ordinary condition but
becomes essential in certain circumstances

– Eg. the body normally uses the essential amino acid

phenylalanine to make tyrosine(a non essential amino
acid), but if the diet fail to supply phenylalanine or some
how can’t synthesize this amino acid the tyrosine becomes
a conditionally essential amino acid

87
 Based up on polarity Amino acids can be:

• Amino acids with nonpolar, uncharged side chains:

 e.g., glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline,

phenylalanine, tryptophan and methionine.
• Amino acids with uncharged, polar side chains:
 e.g., serine, threonine, cysteine, tyrosine, asparagine and glutamine.

• Amino acids with charged side chains:

 e. g., aspartic acid, glutamic acid, histidine, lysine and arginine.
 Cont…
Condensation reaction connects amino acids in the body to form proteins
by the help of peptide bond

89
 Cont…
Polypeptide chains exhibit a variety of twisted shapes depending on their
amino acid sequence such that the hydrophilic side chains orient on the
outer surface near the water and the neutral hydrophobic groups tuck
themselves inside, away from water

90
 Cont…
When proteins are exposed for some disrupting conditions such as heat or
an acid, they uncoil and lose their shape= denaturation

– Hardening of eggs when cooked

– The curdling of milk up on the addition of acid

91
 Protein structures

(a) (b) Fig.

structure of insulin(a) and Hemoglobin(b)
92
 Cont…
• Primary structure is the amino acid sequence.

• Secondary structure is how the amino acids in sequence fold up locally.

Commons examples are a-helixes and b-strands.

• Tertiary structure is the 3-dimensional folding of the secondary structural

elements and connecting loops in space.

• Quaternary structure is the association of multiple subunits, each with a

tertiary structure and each a separate gene product.

93
 Cont…

• The structure of a protein is dependent on the amino acid sequence (the primary
structure) which determines the molecular conformation (secondary and tertiary
structures).
• Proteins sometimes occur as molecular aggregates which are arranged in an
orderly geometric fashion (quaternary structure).
Cont…
 Protein quality

Measured by its:
– digestibility
– amino acid composition

Reference protein is the standard by which other proteins are measured-egg

whites

96
 Physical properties of proteins
 Protein molecular Size- Vary from 6000 to million Daltons (Da)
 Colloidal solutions- Protein solution has colloidal properties (high viscosity,

high absorption capacity, light distraction, do not pass through a

semipermeable membrane.
 UV absorption- Proteins have a strong absorption at 280nm.
 Solubility- Affected by the balance of hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino
acids on its surface, charged amino acids play the most important role in keeping
the protein soluble, solubility determined by repulsion forces among protein
molecules and a hydration water layer.
 Cont…

 The proteins are least soluble at their isoelectric point (no net charge)

 The protein become increasingly soluble as pH is increased or decreased

away from the pI (Neutral)

 At low salt concentrations protein solubility increases

 At high salt concentrations protein solubility decreases

 Chemical Properties of proteins
1. Hydrolysis
Proteins can be hydrolyzed (the peptide bond) by acid or enzymes to give
peptides and free amino acids (e.g. soy sauce, fish sauce etc.)
• Modifies protein functional properties E.g. increased solubility
• Increases bioavailability of amino acids excessive consumption of free
amino acids is not good however.
2. Maillard reaction (carbonyl - amine browning)
Changes functional properties of proteins, color, flavor

Decreases nutritional quality (amino acids less available)

2.4. Vitamins
 Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds that are required in small amounts

“Vital to life”

there are 13 vitamins that are required but not produced by the human
system

Do not yield useable energy: they assist the enzymes to release energy from
energy yielding nutrients

Coenzymes
– Can be destroyed by heat, UV, air
101
 Cont…
• Water soluble
– Found on the watery portion of the food
– Must be eaten regularly unlike the fat soluble ones- WHY?
– B-Vitamins
• Thiamin (B1)
• Riboflavin (B2)
• Niacin (B3)
• Biotin
• Panthothenic acid
• Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
• Folate (Folic acid)
• Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
– Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
102
 Cont…
Fat soluble
– A (Retinol),D,E, K
– Found associated with fat and oils
– Tend to remain in fat storage site-may reach toxic level

Precursors/Provitamins-inactive forms of vitamins

– Beta-carotene to V-A

103
 Comparing hydrophobic and hydrophilic vitamins
Hydrophilic vitamins(B & C) Hydrophobic Vitamins
A,D,E,K

Absorption Directly in to the blood First in to the lymph, then the

blood

Transport Travel freely Require protein carriers

Storage no Stored in cells associated with

fat
Excretion Kidney detect and remove excess Less readily excreted-tend to
in urine remain in fat storage site
Toxicity Possible to reach toxic levels when Likely to reach toxic levels
consumed from supplements

Requirements Needed in frequent doses Needed in periodic doses

104