ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I

MEE 351 CLASS LECTURES

Osarobo Ighodaro
[Link] (Lagos), [Link] (Benin), PhD (Newcastle)
Turbines and High Temperature Fuel Cells.

[Link], [Link]@[Link]
 HEAT ENGINE CYCLE (GAS POWER

CYCLE)
CARNOT CYCLE

 CONSTANT VOLUME OR OTTO CYCLE

 CONSTANT PRESSURE OR DIESEL CYCLE

 DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE

 STIRLING AND ERICSSON CYCLES

 GAS TURBINE CYCLE (BRAYTON CYCLE)

CARNOT CYCLE
 MOST EFFICIENT CYCLE
 ALL HEAT SUPPLIED AT ONE FIXED TEMPERATURE AND ALL THE HEAT
REJECTED AT A LOWER FIXED TEMPERATURE
 CYCLE CONSISTS OF TWO ISOTHERMAL PROCESSES AND TWO ADIABATIC
PROCESSES
 ALL PROCESSES ARE REVERSIBLE
 ADIABATIC PROCESS ARE ALSO ISENTROPIC

Process 1 to 2 is isentropic expansion from

Process 2 to 3 is isothermal heat rejection

Process 3 to 4 is isentropic compression from

Process 4 to 1 is isothermal heat addition

  The cycle efficiency of a heat engine is given by net work output divided by the gross heat supply
 i.e

Gross heat supply

Work done = - =

Carnot Efficiency =

Workdone=heat supplied – heat rejected

Carnot cycle for a perfect gas
Issues with Carnot cycle

 For a carnot cycle, the pressure of the gas changes continuously from to during heat addition and
from to during heat rejection
 In practice, it is more convenient to heat gas at approximately constant pressure or constant volume,
 Net work output of the cycle is given by the are 12341, this is small given by the gross work output
of the expansion process 412BA4
 The ratio of the net work to the gross work output of the system is called the work ratio
 The Carnot cycle, despite its high efficiency, has a low work ratio

Heat supplied=
  QUESTION
 A Carnot engine working between 450°C and 50°C produces 145 kJ of work. Determine:
 (i) The engine thermal efficiency.
 (ii) The heat added.
 (iii) The entropy changes during heat rejection process

==

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝜼𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 =
h𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙 𝒊𝒆𝒅

h𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 =𝑇 2 ( 𝑆 𝐵 − 𝑆 𝐴 )
 QUESTION
 0.35 kg of air (ideal gas) executes a Carnot power cycle having a thermal efficiency of 52 per cent.
The heat transfer to the air during the isothermal expansion is 35 kJ. At the beginning of the
isothermal expansion the pressure is 8 bar and the volume is 0.2 m 3. Determine:
 (i) The maximum and minimum temperatures for the cycle in K;
 (ii) The volume at the end of isothermal expansion in m 3;
 (iii) The heat transfer for each of the four processes in kJ.
 For air cv = 0.721 kJ/kg K, and cp = 1.008 kJ/kg K.

Given: m, ,
…..maximum temperature

Isothermal expansion=
Constant Volume (Otto Cycle)
 Conceived by Mr. ‘Otto’.
 Petrol, gas and many types of oil engines (fuels) works on this cycle.
 It is the standard of comparison for internal combustion engines. Figs. shows the theoretical p-V
diagram and T-s diagrams of this cycle respectively.
 The point 1 represents that cylinder is full of air with volume V1, pressure p1 and absolute temperature
T1.
 Line 1-2 represents the adiabatic compression of air due to which p1, V1 and T1 change to p2, V2 and
T2, respectively.
 Line 2-3 shows the supply of heat to the air at constant volume so that p2 and T2 change to p3 and T3
(V3 being the same as V2).
 Line 3-4 represents the adiabatic expansion of the air. During expansion p3, V3 and T3 change to a
final value of p4, V4 or V1 and T4, respectively.
 Line 4-1 shows the rejection of heat by air at constant volume till original state (point 1) reaches.

Consider 1kg of air

Heat supplied at constant volume =
Heat rejected at constant volume =
Work done = Heat Supplied – Heat Rejected =

Efficiency == =
 Air Standard Efficiency of the Otto Cycle

Compression ratio =
  QUESTION: The minimum pressure and temperature in an Otto cycle are 1bar and 27C. The
amount of heat added to the air per cycle is 1500kJ /kg. i. Determine the pressures and
temperatures at all points of the air standard Otto cycle
ii. Also calculate the specific work and thermal efficiency of the cycle for a compression ratio of 8:1
Take cv=0.72kJ/kg K and

Specific work=
- = 847kJ/kg

𝑝2
=
𝑝3
, 𝑝 3=73.94 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝟏
𝑇2 𝑇3 𝜼𝒕𝒉=𝟏− 𝜸 −𝟏
=𝟓𝟔 .𝟒𝟕 %
𝒓
 QUESTION: Calculate the ideal air standard cycle efficiency based on the Otto Cycle for a
petrol engine with a cylinder bore of 50mm, stroke of 75mm and a clearance volume of
21.3cm3

Swept Volume=

Compression ratio = 7.914/1

Diesel Cycle
 This cycle was introduced by Dr. R. Diesel in 1897.
 It differs from Otto cycle in that heat is supplied at constant pressure instead of at constant volume.
 This cycle comprises of the following operations :
 (i) 1-2......Isentropic compression.
 (ii) 2-3......Addition of heat at constant pressure.
 (iii) 3-4......Isentropic expansion.
 (iv) 4-1......Rejection of heat at constant volume.
 At constant pressure per kg of air

 At constant volume per kg of air, the heat rejected

 No heat flow in processes 1 to 2 and 3-4 since these processes are isentropic. Substituting in the
expression for thermal efficiency, then

Where = cut-off ratio

Equation shows that the thermal efficiency depends only on the compression ratio, and the cut off ratio
i.e the heat supplied between 2 and 3.
 QUESTION
A diesel engine has inlet temperature and pressure of 15C and 1bar respectively. The compression ratio
is 12/1 and the maximum cycle temperature is 1100C. Calculate the air standard efficiency based on the
diesel cycle.

𝑇 1=25+ 273=288 𝐾 , 𝑇 3=1100+273=1373 𝐾 ,𝑟 =12

𝑇2 𝛾 −1
=𝑟 , 𝑇 2 =778 𝐾
𝑇1
At constant pressure 2-3,

( )
𝛾 −1
𝑇 4 𝑣4
= ,𝑇 4 =638 𝐾
𝑇 3 𝑣3

Net work done =

==58%
Dual Combustion Cycle
 Is a combination of the Otto and Diesel cycles
 Heat is added partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure
 Consists of the following operations:
 1-2 ….. Adiabatic Compression
 2-3……Addition of heat at constant volume
 3-4……Addition of heat at constant pressure
 4-5……Adiabatic expansion
 5-1……Rejection of heat at constant volume
 Total heat supplied
 Heat rejected
 Efficiency = =

To solve the thermal efficiency completely, three factors are necessary:

Compression ratio , the ratio of pressures and ratio of volumes

The efficiency can be expressed as

Note that when k=1 (i.e. ), then the equation reduces to the thermal efficiency of a diesel cycle.

The efficiency of a dual combustion cycle depends on the compression ratio and on the relative amount of heat
supplied at constant volume and constant pressure
  QUESTION: An internal combustion engine takes in air at 1.01bar, 20C and the maximum pressure
is 69bar. The compression ratio is 18/1. Calculate the air standard thermal efficiency based on the
dual combustion cycle. Assume that the heat added at constant volume is equal to the heat added at
constant pressure

( )
𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑣2
= =3.18 , 𝑇 2=931 𝐾
𝑇1 𝑣1

( )
𝛾
𝑝2 𝑣1
= =57.2 , 𝑝 2=57.8 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑝1 𝑣2

2-3 is a constant volume process, hence

, = 1112K

Heat added at constant volume =heat added at constant pressure

,

( )
𝛾 −1
At constant pressure 3-4 𝑇4 𝑣5
= =3. 04 , 𝑇 5 =408 𝐾
𝑇5 𝑣4
𝑣 3 𝑣 1 𝑣 1 𝑣3 1
= = =18 𝑥 =16.4 Heat supplied =260kJ/kg
𝑣4 𝑣4 𝑣2𝑣4 1.116 Heat rejected = 68.2%
Mean effective pressure
 The mean effective pressure s the term used in comparing reciprocating engines.
 It is defined as the height of a rectangle having the same length and area as the cycle plotted on the pv

Work output per kg of air

Question: Calculate the mean effective pressure for the cycle in the previous question

=68.2%

=18
==
=2.25bar
Stirling and Ericsson Cycles
 Cycles having efficiency equal to the Carnot cycle but superior to the Carnot cycle due to
their higher work ratios
 Consists of two isothermal and two constant volume processes.

1-2….Isothermal expansion with heat addition from a source

temperature

3-4….Isothermal compression with heat rejection to the surrounding at

temperature

2-3 and 4-1are constant volume heat transfer process

𝑣2
𝑄1 − 2 ( h𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 ) =𝑊 1 −2 = 𝑅𝑇 1 𝐼𝑛
𝑣1

𝑣3
𝑄 3 −4 ( h𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 ) =𝑊 3 − 4 = 𝑅𝑇 1 𝐼𝑛
𝑣4
 If a regenerative arrangement is used i.e. the area under 1-4 equals the area under 2-3, then the cycle
efficiency becomes
 ==
 The regenerative Stirling cycle has same efficiency as the Carnot cycle
 The Ericsson cycle is similar to the Stirling cycle except that the two isothermal processes are connected
by constant pressure processes
BRAYTON CYCLE (GAS TURBINE CYCLE)
 Is a constant pressure cycle for a perfect gas (also called Joule cycle)
 The heat transfers are carried out in constant pressure heat exchangers
 An ideal gas turbine plant performs the process that makes up a Brayton cycle

1-2…Air is compressed isentropically, no heat added

2-3…Heat flows into the system at constant pressure

3-4…Air expands isentropically, no heat flow occurs

4-1…..Heat is rejected from system at constant pressure

 Heat received in process 2-3 =
 Heat rejected in process 4-1=

𝑐 𝑝 ( 𝑇 3 −𝑇 2 ) −𝑐 𝑝 ( 𝑇 4 − 𝑇 1 ) 𝑇4 − 𝑇1
𝜼= =𝟏−
𝑐 𝑝 ( 𝑇 3 −𝑇 2 ) 𝑇 3 −𝑇 2

For isentropic processes = = = , =pressure ratio

Similarly = = =
Thus =1-