MBEYA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNICAL
EDUCATION
Department of Natural Science

NSLT 07403: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

(BLST: SECOND YEAR)

Course Instructor
Mr. Sanga, V.F
Office No216: CoSTE

Email: sangavictor2006@[Link]
0764417503
 Dosimetric Quantities and Units

1
10/25/10
 Contents
Introduction Exposure Absorbed
Dose Kerma
Dose Equivalent
Committed Dose Equivalent Effective Dose
Equivalent

Total Effective Dose Equivalent (TEDE) Total Organ Dose

Equivalent (TODE) Summary

3
INTRODUCTION

4
 Four Dosimetric Quantities
• Exposure (X)
– Units: roentgen (R), coulombs/kilogram (C/kg)

• Absorbed Dose (D)

– Units: rad, gray(Gy), joules/kilogram (J/kg)

• Kerma (K)
– Units: rad, gray(Gy), joules/kilogram (J/kg)

• Dose Equivalent , aka Equivalent Dose

(H or DE)
– Units: rem, sievert (Sv) 5
Exposure (X)
and
Exposure
Rate (X)

6
Exposure/Exposure Dose (X)

Quantity: Exposure (X)

Units: roentgen (R)

coulombs/kilogram

Unit conversions: 1R =
2.58 x 10-4 C/kg

The quantity exposure reflects the intensity of gamma ray or

x-rays and the duration of the exposure.

More specifically, it is a measure of the charge on the ions of

one sign (negative or positive) resulting from the interaction7 of
gamma ray and x-ray photons in a specified mass of air.
Exposure (X)
Current Definition of the Roentgen
1R = 2.58 x 10-4 C/kg

Original Definition of the Roentgen

The quantity of x-ray or gamma ray photons that produces a
charge of one sign, either positive or negative, of 1 esu
(electrostatic unit) per 1 cc of air at STP (0.001293 g)
A measure of radiation based on ability to produce ionization

8
Exposure (X)
e-

Gamma ray or 1 kg of air

x-ray photons
e-
PE

CS e+

PP

e-
11
Exposure Rate (X)
Quantity: Exposure Rate (X)

Units: roentgen/hour (R hr -1)

coulombs/kilogram/second (C
kg-1 s-1)

Unit conversions: 1 R/hr = 71.7 x 10-8 C kg-1 s-1

The quantity exposure reflects the intensity of gamma ray or

x-rays.

10
Exposure (X) and Exposure Rate (X)
General Comments

The quantity is only defined for photons (e.g., gamma rays

and x-rays). Instruments measuring exposure rate (e.g., in
mR/hr) should not respond to charged particles (e.g., betas).

The quantity is only defined in air. The exposure of other

materials (e.g., tissue) should not be expressed in units of
exposure rate (e.g., mR/hr).

The quantity is considered unnecessary and is sometimes

replaced by the absorbed dose rate or kerma rate to air.

11
Exposure Rate (X)
Important Equation

X is the exposure rate (e.g., R/hr)

A is the source activity (e.g., Ci)
F is the specific gamma ray constant (e.g., R m2 hr-1 Ci-1)
d is the distance from the source (e.g., m)

12
 Exposure (X)
Is the amount of ionizing radiation per hour

X is the exposure (e.g., R)

A is the source activity (e.g., Ci)
F is the specific gamma ray constant (e.g., R m2 hr-1 Ci-1)
d is the distance from the source (e.g., m)
t is the duration of the exposure (e.g., hr)

13
 Exposure Rate (X)
IS the amount of ionizing radiation per hour in a person
vicinity’s vicinity, (measured in mill Roentgen per hour, mR/h

It calculates the exposure rate for a point source.

It works reasonably well for other source geometries when the

distance (d) is greater than five times the maximum dimension of
the source.

It does not include the background exposure rate.

It does not consider the contribution to the exposure rate made

14
by scattered photons.
Exposure Rate (X)
Important Equation

d is the distance from the source at which a given exposure

rate will occur

15
Exposure (X) and Exposure Rate (X)
Specific Gamma Ray Constant (F)

Each gamma emitting radionuclide has its own unique

specific gamma ray constant.

The specific gamma ray constant is the exposure rate at a

specified distance from a specified activity of the nuclide.

These constants are usually looked up in tables, but they

can be calculated if necessary.

For look up tables, see PTP’s Rad Health Handbook starting

at page 69.
16
Exposure (X) and Exposure Rate (X)
Specific Gamma Ray Constant (F)

The exposure rate constant for Co-60 is 1.32 R m2 hr-1 Ci-1

This means that the exposure rate at one meter from a one
curie Co-60 source is 1.32 R/hr.

This is equivalent to 13.2 R/hr at one cm per mCi

(13.2 R cm2 hr-1 mCi-1)

17
Exposure (X) and Exposure Rate (X)
Calculating the Specific Gamma Ray Constant (F)
To determine the specific gamma ray constant for a given
radionuclide, individual constants are calculated for each of
the radionuclide's gamma rays and x-rays and then the
individual constants are summed. The formula for each
constant is

F is the constant in R m2 h-1 Ci-1

E is the gamma energy in MeV
I is the gamma intensity
(gammas/disintegration)
uen/D is the mass energy 18

absorption coefficient in cm2 g-1

Exposure Rate (X) - example calculation
What is the exposure rate at one foot from a 30 curie iridium
192 source?

19
 Exposure Rate (X)
Rule of Thumb Regarding Radium-226

The exposure rate at one meter from a one curie Ra-226

source is approximately 1 R/hr.

As such, the exposure rate at one meter from one mCi of

Ra-226 is approximately 1 mR/hr.

Similarly, the exposure rate at one meter from one uCi of

Ra-226 is approximately 1 uR/hr above background.

Finally, the exposure rate at one foot from one uCi of Ra-226
is approximately 10 uR/hr above background.

20
Absorbed Dose (D)
and
Absorbed Dose
Rate (D)

21
Absorbed Dose (D) and Absorbed Dose Rate (D)

Quantity: Absorbed Dose (D)-The quantity of energy

deposited in tissue as a result of exposure to ionizing
radiation OR simply energy absorbed by human tissue.

Units: rad

gray (Gy) joules/kilogram

Unit conversions: 1 Gy = 1 J/kg =

100 rads

22
Absorbed Dose (D) and Absorbed Dose Rate (D)

The quantity absorbed Dose (D) is a measure of the amount

of radiation energy absorbed per unit mass (e.g.,
joules/kilogram or ergs/gram).

It applies to all types of radiation, e.g., x-rays, gamma rays,

betas, alphas, neutrons

The absorbed dose can be calculated for any material, e.g.,

air, water, tissue, lead

23
Absorbed Dose (D) and Absorbed Dose Rate (D)
General Comments

The absorbed dose reflects the energy deposited per unit

mass, not the total energy:

A 100 kg person absorbing 100 joules of energy has an

absorbed dose of 1 Gy (100 rads).

A 50 kg person absorbing the same energy has an

absorbed dose of 2 Gy (200 rads).

The absorbed dose is material specific, e.g., the absorbed

dose to human tissue from gamma rays or x-rays will be
greater than the absorbed dose to hair in the same
situation. 24
Absorbed Dose (D) and Absorbed Dose Rate (D)

Absorbed Dose or Dose Rate to Air (gammas, x-rays)

By definition 1 roentgen (R) = 2.58 x 10-4 C/kg

Since the charge on a single ion (e.g., electron) is 1.6 x 10-19

coulombs, an exposure of 1 roentgen results in the formation
of 1.6125 x 1015 ion pairs/kg in air.

Since the average energy absorbed in air per ion pair

produced is 34 eV (or so), an exposure of one roentgen
equates to the absorption in air of 5.48 x 1016 eV/kg.

25
Absorbed Dose (D) and Absorbed Dose Rate (D)

Absorbed Dose or Dose Rate to Air

Since 1 eV equals 1.6 x 10-19 joules, an exposure of one

roentgen equates to an absorbed dose in air of 0.0088 J/kg or
0.0088 gray.

Since one gray equals 100 rads, an exposure of 1 roentgen

equates to an absorbed dose 0.88 rads in air

26
Absorbed Dose (D) and Absorbed Dose Rate (D)

Absorbed Dose or Dose Rate to Air

The absorbed dose or dose rate to air from photons (gamma

rays and x-rays) is related to the exposure as follows:

= 0.88 X
Dair

Dair is the dose or dose rate to air (e.g., rads or rads/hr)

X is the exposure or exposure rate (e.g., R or R/hr)

27
Absorbed Dose (D) and Absorbed Dose Rate (D)
Important Equation

The absorbed dose or dose rate to any material can be

calculated from the exposure or exposure rate as follows:

Dmaterial is the dose or dose rate to the specified material

(e.g., rads, rads/hr) due to photons.

X is the exposure or exposure rate (e.g., R or R/hr)

(:µen/p)material is the mass energy absorption coefficient for

the specified material at the photon energy of interest 28
Absorbed Dose (D) and Absorbed Dose Rate (D)
Absorbed Dose or Dose Rate to Tissue due to Photons

The absorbed dose or dose rate to human tissue due to

photons can be calculated by using the following equation:

29
Absorbed Dose (D) and Absorbed Dose Rate (D)
Absorbed Dose or Dose Rate to Tissue due to Photons

The photon energy must be specified in order to determine the

mass energy absorption coefficients (:µen /p).

The energy selected is not very important because the ratio of

the absorption coefficients for two materials tends to remain
constant as a function of energy. For the purpose of this
example, we will use 1 MeV photons.

The mass energy absorption coefficient at 1 Mev for tissue

is
3.074 x 10-2 cm2/g

The mass energy absorption coefficient at 1 MeV for air

30
is 2.789 x 10-2 cm2/g
Absorbed Dose (D) and Absorbed Dose Rate (D)
Absorbed Dose or Dose Rate to Tissue due to Photons

In other words, the absorbed dose to human tissue is

approximately 1 rad if the exposure in air is 1 R.

If the exposure rate at a point is 1 R/hr, then the absorbed

dose rate to tissue at that point is approximately 1 rad/hr.

31
KERMA
(K)

32
Kerma
Quantity: Kerma (K)-The sum of Initial kinetic energies of all
charged particles released by uncharged ionizing
radiation in sample of matter
Units: rad

gray (Gy)

joules/kilogram

Unit conversions: 1 Gy = 1 J/kg = 100 rads

Kerma is similar to absorbed dose except that it is a measure

of the energy released (lost) by the radiation rather than the
energy absorbed by a material.
33
 Kerma
• Kerma is the energy transferred to charged particles per
unit mass of material by indirectly ionizing radiation, e.g.,
gamma rays, neutrons. It is not defined for charged particle
radiation (e.g., alphas, betas).

• Kerma is “kinetic energy released in matter”

• Kerma can be useful for explaining certain phenomena

near the interface of two materials, e.g., the lack of
damage to skin from high energy photons (e.g., Co-60 or
multi MV x-rays).

• The concept of kerma is most widely employed in medical

radiology 34
 Kerma
• Gamma rays or x-rays
In many, but not all, situations, the absorbed dose equals
the kerma:

For Air: Exposure Absorbed Dose Kerma

1 roentgen 0.88 rad 0.88 rad

Air kerma (rads) is sometimes used instead of exposure

(R) to describe the intensity of photons.

• Neutrons
In almost all situations, the absorbed dose equals the
kerma because the range of the charged particles is
short and there is no radiative loss (bremsstrahlung).

37
Kerma
Kerma and dose as a function of depth in a material

Dose

Kerma

Depth in material

Attenuation
36
Dose Equivalent (H)

37
Dose Equivalent (Equivalent Dose)/Biological
Dose
Quantity: Dose Equivalent (H or DE) is a measure of the
biological damage to living tissue as a result of radiation
exposure or absorbed dose to a given radiation type. (Not all
radiation is alike)

Also referred to as Equivalent Dose.

Units: rem

sievert (Sv) joules/kilogram

Unit conversions: 1 Sv = 1 J/kg = 100

rems
38
 Dose Equivalent (Equivalent Dose)
General
• The quantity dose equivalent is an administrative concept
employed for the purpose of radiation protection.

• It attempts to be a measure of the long term biological

consequences for humans of a given exposure to radiation.
This is why the regulatory limits are expressed as a dose
equivalent rather than exposure or absorbed dose.

• It “is defined for routine radiation protection applications. It

should not be used in the numerical assessment of high-
level exposures” (ICRU 51).

39
 Dose Equivalent (Equivalent Dose)
General
• The dose equivalent should only be applied to humans.
Nevertheless, it is sometimes applied to other mammals.

• It can be calculated for any type of radiation.

40
 Dose Equivalent (Equivalent Dose)
General
• The dose equivalent is calculated as follows:

H = D Q

H is the dose equivalent (e.g., rems, sieverts)

D is the absorbed dose to human tissue (e.g., rads, gray)
Q is the quality factor

Internationally, the quality factor (Q) has been replaced by the

radiation weighting factor wR:

H = D wR
41
 Dose Equivalent (Equivalent Dose)

Quality Factor (Q) and Stopping Power

• The value assigned the quality factor is based on the

stopping power of the charged particles in water, i.e., the
energy lost per unit distance travelled.

• The charged particles being referred to are those which

transfer energy to the tissue.

• In the case of gamma ray or x-rays, the charged particles

are electrons.

• In the case of neutrons, a mix of charged particles is

involved: electrons, protons, carbon nuclei, etc. 42
Dose Equivalent (Equivalent Dose)

Standard Quality Factors (Q or wR)

The quality factor depends on the energy of the radiation,

but the dependence is minimal for beta particles, alpha
particles and photons.

In almost all cases, the following quality factors (radiation

weighting factors) are employed

Radiation Q or wR
Beta Particles (electrons) 1
Gamma rays and X-rays 1
Alpha particles 20

43
 Dose Equivalent (Equivalent Dose)
Quality Factor for Neutrons

• Unlike the quality factors for beta particles, gamma rays, x-

rays and alpha particles, the quality factor for neutrons is
very dependent on neutron energy. Nevertheless, neutrons
are often assigned a “default” quality factor of 10.

• Different regulatory agencies use different neutron quality

factors . The NRC uses those of ICRP 26. DOE uses the
higher quality factors recommended by ICRP 60.

• An accurate determination of the dose equivalent for

neutrons requires that the neutron spectrum must be known
- the neutron spectrum is rarely known
44
Dose Equivalent (Equivalent Dose)

Example Calculation

If the absorbed dose to a nuclear worker were 0.1 rads from

neutrons of unknown energy and 0.3 rads from gamma
rays, the worker’s dose equivalent (equivalent dose) would
be:

H = +
(D Q)neutron (D Q)gamma

= (0.1 x 10) + ( 0.3 x

1)
= 1.3 rems
or 0.013 Sv

45
Versions of the Dose Equivalent
(Equivalent Dose)
It is an unfortunate fact of life that the ICRU, ICRP, etc. have
defined a large number of dose equivalent quantities. Some
of these include:

• Committed dose equivalent (committed equivalent dose)

• Effective dose equivalent (effective dose)
• Committed effective dose equivalent (committed
effective dose)
• Collective dose equivalent (collective
equivalent dose)
• Ambient dose equivalent
• Directional dose equivalent
46
Committed Dose Equivalent
(H50 or CDE)

47
Committed Dose Equivalent
(Committed Equivalent Dose)
The Committed Dose Equivalent (H50 or CDE) is only
calculated for internal exposures. In other words exposures
resulting from inhalation, ingestion, absorption through the
skin, or injection.

It is the total (integrated) dose equivalent over the 50 years

following the intake of the radionuclide.

The committed dose is attributed to the year of the intake.

In a manner of speaking, it is the dose that you are

committed to over the course of your life as a result of the
intake in a given year.
48
Committed Dose Equivalent
(Committed Equivalent Dose)
For short-lived nuclides (e.g., I-131), or radionuclides rapidly
cleared from the body (e.g., H-3), the committed dose
equivalent is the same as the dose equivalent delivered
during the year of the intake.

For long-lived nuclides that remain in the body, the

committed dose equivalent is much greater than the dose
equivalent during the year of intake.

The concept simplifies bookkeeping. In a given year, (e.g.,

2009) an employer only has to deal with the dose resulting
from intakes during that year. They don’t have to calculate
the doses that result from intakes in previous years.
49
Effective Dose Equivalent
(HE or EDE)

50
Effective Dose Equivalent
(Effective Dose)
For the most part, the Effective Dose Equivalent (HE or
EDE) is only calculated for internal exposures. In other
words, exposures resulting from radionuclides getting inside
the body via inhalation, ingestion, absorption through the
skin, or injection.

The concept is intended to deal with non-uniform radiation

exposures. Although the doses to the different
tissues/organs of the body are pretty much the same for
external exposures, the different tissues/organs often
receive very different doses for internal exposures.

51
Effective Dose Equivalent
(Effective Dose)
The effective dose equivalent concept equates non-uniform
internal exposures to external uniform exposures by
considering the risk.

This allows external exposures to be added to internal

exposures in order to calculate a total dose (e.g., the
TEDE).

Total Dose = External Exposure + Internal

Exposure

52
Effective Dose Equivalent (effective dose)
for a Specific Tissue

The effective dose (HE,T) for a given tissue is the product of

the dose equivalent for that tissue (HT) and the tissue
weighting factor for that tissue (wT) :

= HT wT
HE,T

The wT reflects the risk of dying of cancer per unit dose

equivalent to that tissue. The value assigned to the
various tissues in the body has changed over time as the
risk estimates have been refined.

53
Effective Dose Equivalent (effective dose)
for a Specific Tissue
If the dose equivalent to the tissue is a committed dose
equivalent (and it almost always is), we calculate a
committed effective dose equivalent rather than an effective
dose equivalent.

CEDE = CDE x wT

The NRC uses the weighting factors (wT) of ICRP 26.

DOE uses those of ICRP 60.

As yet, no one uses the weighting factors recommended in

ICRP 103. 54
Effective Dose Equivalent (effective dose)
for a Specific Tissue - Meaning of the Tissue
Weighting Factor
As an example, the ICRP 26 tissue weighting factor for the
thyroid is 0.03. This can be interpreted in several ways:
• 3% of the deaths due to uniform whole body
exposures are due to thyroid cancer.
• The risk due to a specific dose (e.g., 1 rad) just to the
thyroid is 3% of the risk that would result if that dose
were delivered to the entire body.
• 100 rems just to the thyroid carries the same risk as a
3 rems uniform exposure to the whole body.
60
Effective Dose Equivalent (effective dose)
for a Specific Tissue - Meaning of the Tissue
Weighting Factor

The sum of the weighting factors for all the tissues of the
body is 1.

61
Effective Dose Equivalent (effective dose)
for the Whole Body
The effective dose (HE) for the whole body is the sum of the
effective dose equivalents for the individual tissues:

HE = Σ HT wT
Example:

The next slide shows the committed dose equivalent to the

various tissues of the body when an individual ingests 0.1
mCi of I-131.

These committed doses are multiplied by the appropriate

ICRP 26 weighting factors to get the effective dose
equivalents for these tissues. Finally, these are summed
to62 get the effective dose equivalent for the whole body.
Effective Dose Equivalent (effective dose)
for the Whole Body

Tissue/Organ WT HT (rem) HE,T (rem)

Gonads 0.25 0.02 0.005
Breast 0.15 - -
Red Bone Marrow 0.12 0.03 0.004
Lung 0.12 - -
Thyroid 0.03 130 3.900
Bone Surfaces 0.03 0.03 0.001
Small Intestine (remainder) 0.06 0.10 0.006
Stomach (remainder) 0.06 0.14 0.008
Bladder (remainder) 0.06 0.24 0.014
63
Liver (remainder) 0.06 0.04 0.002
HE = Σ HT wT 3.940
Committed Effective Dose
Equivalent (HE,50 or CEDE)

59
Committed Effective Dose Equivalent
(Committed Effective Dose)
There is not much to say about the committed effective
dose equivalent (HE,50 or CEDE).

Almost inevitably, when an effective dose equivalent is

calculated, it is the committed effective dose equivalent. In
other words, we almost always deal with the CEDE. The
EDE is rarely calculated.

An exception: situations when the effective dose equivalent

is calculated for a non-uniform external exposure. In this
case, it would simply be an effective dose equivalent -
the committed “concept” only applies to internal exposures.
60
Committed Effective Dose Equivalent
(Committed Effective Dose)
To obtain the committed effective dose equivalent for a
specific tissue, the committed dose equivalent to that tissue
due to an internal exposure is multiplied by the tissue
weighting factor:

CEDE = CDE x wT

= x wT
HE,T,50 HT,50

61
Total Effective Dose Equivalent
(TEDE)

62
TEDE
The NRC currently limits a worker’s total effective dose
equivalent (TEDE) to 5 rems in a year.

This is intended to minimize the possibility of stochastic

effects (e.g., cancer).

TEDE is pronounced “ teddy”

It is the sum of the external exposure and the internal

exposures:

TEDE = External dose equivalent + Internal dose

equivalent

63
TEDE - external exposure
The external dose equivalent is measured with a dosimeter.
Only dosimeters accepted by the regulatory agency as a
“dosimeter of record” can be used (e.g., TLDs, OSL, film).

The analysis of the dosimeter typically results in three dose

equivalents being reported :

Deep dose equivalent (DDE)

Shallow dose equivalent

(SDE) Dose to the lens of the

eye (LDE)

Of these, the deep dose equivalent is used as the measure64of

the external exposure.
TEDE – internal exposure
The internal exposure is sometimes assumed to be zero.

However, if the internal dose equivalent is expected to be

sufficiently large, it must be accounted for.

To calculate the internal exposure, the person’s intake (e.g.,

pCi, Bq) via ingestion, inhalation, injection or absorption
must be known.

The intake might be estimated on the basis of a whole body

count, urine analysis, etc.

Once the intake is known, the committed effective dose

equivalent (CEDE) can be determined from lookup tables
(e.g., Federal Guidance Report 11. 70
TEDE – internal exposure
Such lookup tables are fine for the chemical form of
radioactive material normally present in the workplace.

However, these tables should not be used to determine the

CEDE due to the intake of the radiopharmaceuticals
employed in nuclear medicine.

Determining the CEDE from the intake of

radiopharmaceuticals involves the MIRD methodology.

The RADAR website is an excellent place to find out about

this.

[Link]
66
TEDE – internal exposure
For the purpose of calculating the TEDE, the committed
effective dose equivalent (CEDE) serves as the internal
exposure.

TEDE = External dose equivalent + Internal dose

equivalent TEDE = DDE + CEDE

67
TEDE
The external exposure component of the TEDE is the actual
exposure for a specified year, e.g., 2009.

The internal component of the TEDE (the CEDE) is the dose

equivalent accumulated over the 50 years following the intake
(e.g., 2009-2060) that year.

It might seem odd to do it this way, but that is how it is done.

68
Total Organ Dose Equivalent
(TODE)

69
TODE
The NRC currently limits a worker’s total organ dose equivalent
(TODE) to 50 rems in a year.

The exception is the lens of the eye which is only allowed 15

rems in a year.

The limit on the TODE is intended to eliminate (not minimize)

the possibility of deterministic (non-stochastic) effects such as
cataracts.

The TODE is the sum of the external exposure and the internal
exposures:

TODE = External dose equivalent + Internal dose equivalent

70
TODE
For most organs/tissues, the deep dose equivalent measured
with a dosimeter serves as the external exposure.

For the lens of the eye, the eye dose equivalent is used as the
external exposure.

As was true for the TEDE, the external exposure component of

the TODE is the actual exposure for a specified year, e.g.,
2009. On the other hand, the internal component of the
exposure (the CDE) is the dose equivalent accumulated over
the 50 years (e.g., 2009-2060) following the intake (e.g., in
2009).

71
TODE
Depending on its magnitude, the internal dose might or might
not be calculated. If it must be calculated, the person’s intake is
estimated via a whole body count, urine analysis, etc.

For the purpose of calculating the TODE, the committed dose

equivalent (CDE) serves as the internal exposure.

TODE = External dose equivalent + Internal dose

equivalent TODE = DDE +CDE

= LDE + CDE

72
TODE
In a previous example, an individual ingested 0.1 mCi of I-131. The
following table indicated the committed dose equivalent (HT) to each tissue,
the committed effective dose equivalent for each tissue (HE,T) and the
summed whole body committed effective dose equivalent.

Tissue/Organ WT HT (rem) HE,T (rem)

Gonads 0.25 0.02 0.005
Breast 0.15 - -
Red Bone Marrow 0.12 0.03 0.004
Lung 0.12 - -
Thyroid 0.03 130 3.900
Bone Surfaces 0.03 0.03 0.001
Small Intestine (remainder) 0.06 0.10 0.006
Stomach (remainder) 0.06 0.14 0.008
Bladder (remainder) 0.06 0.24 0.014
Liver (remainder) 0.06 0.04 0.002
HE = Σ HT wT 3.940
73
TODE
If the individual’s external deep dose equivalent (as measured
by a dosimeter) was 1 rem, the TEDE is just below the 5 rems
limit:
TEDE = DDE + CEDE
= 1 rem + 3.94
rems
= 4.94 rems

However, the TODE for the thyroid would exceed the 50 rems
limit!
TODE = DDE + CDE
= 1 rem + 130
= 131 rems 79
rems
Inverse Square Law

75
Inverse Square Law
As the distance from a source changes, the intensity of the
radiation changes with the square of the distance:

I2 is the intensity of the radia tion at distance 2 (d2) in

I

R/hr, rads/hr, rems/hr, n/cm2/s, etc

I1 is the intensity of the radiation at distance 1 (d1)

d1
I1
d2
I2
76
Inverse Square Law

The above equation gives the distance (d2) at which the

intensity of the radiation will be I2 if the intensity of the
I

radiation (I1) is known at another distance (d1)

d1
I1
d2
I2

77
Summary

78
 Radiation Type (from Absorbing
Quantity Symbol Units what?) Medium
(in what?)
Exposure X roentgens gamma and x-rays air
C/kg
The quantity exposure is a measure of the intensity of gamma rays and x-rays in air.
More specifically, it is a measure of the charge on the ions produced in air.
Absorbed D rad any type any type
Dose gray (Gy)
J/
kg is the radiation energy absorbed per unit mass of material
The quantity absorbed dose

Kerma K rad uncharged any type

gray (Gy) (photons, neutrons)
J/
kgenergy released by uncharged particles (photons
The quantity kerma is the
or neutrons) per unit mass of material through which the particles travel
Dose H rem Any type human tissue
Equivalent sievert (Sv)
J/kg
The dose equivalent is an administrative concept used for the purpose of radiation
protection. It is related to the risk of dying of cancer due to an exposure. It is
intended to apply in the low dose range of the regulatory limits 84
Summary
As an approximation:

1 roentgen . 1 rad . 1 rad . 1 rem

(photons in air) (absorbed dose to (kerma in tissue) (dose equivalent to tissue)
tissue)

1 roentgen . 0.88 rad . 0.88 rad

(photons in air) (absorbed dose to air) (air kerma)

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Summary
Key Equations:

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Summary
TEDE = External Exposure + Internal
(DDE) Exposure
(CEDE)
TODE = External Exposure + Internal
(DDE or LDE) Exposure
(CDE)

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