CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR
AN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH MARKETING
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and
behavior. Psychologists are actively involved in
studying and understanding mental processes, brain
functions, and behavior. The field of psychology is
considered a "Hub Science" with strong connections to
the medical sciences, social sciences, and education
(Boyack, Klavans, & Borner, 2005).
Psychology is a new science, with most advances happening over the past 150
years. However, its origins can be traced back to ancient Greece, 400 – 500
BC.
The emphasis was a philosophical one, with great thinkers such as Socrates
(470 BC – 399 BC) influencing Plato (428/427 BC – 348/347 BC), who in turn
influenced Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC).
Philosophers used to discuss many topics now studied by modern psychology,
such as memory, free will vs. determinism, nature vs. nurture, attraction,
etc.
Psychology is a vast and multifaceted field. Over time, as our understanding
of the human mind and behavior has expanded, various specialized areas or
branches of psychology have emerged, such as clinical psychology, social
psychology, and developmental psychology.
The beginnings of Psychology as
a discipline
During the early days of psychology, two theoretical perspectives
dominated the study of the brain: structuralism and functionalism.
Structuralism was developed by Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) and was
focused on breaking down mental processes into their most basic
components. Edward Titchener, an American psychologist who was
trained by Wundt, coined the term "structuralism". Wundt separated
psychology from philosophy by analyzing the workings of the mind in
a more structured way, emphasizing objective measurement and
control. Structuralism relied on trained introspection, a research
method in which subjects reported what was happening in their
minds while performing a certain task. However, introspection proved
to be an unreliable method due to individual variation in the
experiences and reports of research subjects.
Wundt is an important figure in the history of psychology. He opened the first
laboratory dedicated to psychology in 1879, which is considered the beginning of
modern experimental psychology. Despite the failure of introspection, Wundt's
work was significant in shaping the future of psychology.
William James, an American psychologist, developed an approach called
functionalism. This approach disagreed with Structuralism's focus on the
structure of conscious experience. James argued that the mind is constantly
changing, and it's pointless to look for its structure. Instead, he proposed that
psychologists should focus on how and why an organism does something, i.e. the
functions or purpose of the brain. James emphasized the causes and
consequences of behavior and mental processes and suggested that psychologists
should look for their underlying causes. This emphasis has influenced
contemporary psychology.
The Perspectives of
Psychology
Structuralism and functionalism have been replaced by influential
approaches to psychology, each underpinned by shared assumptions.
Behavioral Perspective: Emerging around the 1910s and 1920s
with John Watson’s work, it gained prominence with B.F. Skinner
in the 1930s and 1940s. This perspective emphasizes observable
behaviors and the environment’s role.
Psychodynamic Perspective: Developed in the early 1900s with
the work of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), emphasizing the
unconscious mind and early experiences. Freud’s psychoanalysis
was the original psychodynamic theory, but the psychodynamic
approach as a whole includes all theories that were based on his
ideas, e.g., Jung (1964), Adler (1927), and Erikson (1950).
Humanistic Perspective: Emerged in the 1950s and 1960s as a
reaction to behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow are primary figures.
Cognitive Perspective: Became
prominent around the 1950s and 1960s
as a response to behaviorism. Key
figures include Jean Piaget and Aaron
Beck.
Biological Perspective: While
physiological psychology dates back to
early experimental psychology, the
more integrative
biological/neuroscientific perspective
emphasizing genetics and brain
structures became dominant in the
latter part of the 20th century.
Evolutionary Perspective: While
Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory
dates to the 19th century, its
application to psychology as an
“evolutionary psychology” perspective
gained traction in the 1980s and
1990s.
Sociocultural Perspective: Gained
prominence in the latter half of the
20th century, emphasizing the
influence of social interactions,
cultural practices, and
environmental contexts on
individual behavior and cognitive
processes.
Ecological Systems Perspective:
Introduced by Urie Bronfenbrenner
in the 1970s, this perspective
examines the multi-layered
influences on an individual’s
development.
The Goals of
Psychology
To Describe: The primary aim of
psychology is to describe human
behavior and cognition. This enables
researchers to develop general laws of
human behavior. For instance, Ivan
Pavlov's study of dogs' responses to
different stimuli led to the development
of classical conditioning theory, which is
a set of laws of learning.
To Explain: After researchers have
identified general patterns of behavior,
they propose theories to explain them.
To Predict: Psychology has the goal of predicting future
behavior by using empirical research. If a prediction is
not confirmed, then the explanation it is based on might
need to be revised. For instance, classical conditioning
predicts that if a person associates a negative outcome
with a stimulus, they may develop a phobia or aversion to
that stimulus.
To Change: After psychology has described, explained,
and made predictions about behavior, attempts can be
made to change or control that behavior. One example of
such interventions may include systematic
desensitization, a technique based on classical
conditioning, that has been used to treat individuals
suffering from anxiety disorders, including phobias.
How is psychology
used in everyday life?
Psychology can be incredibly helpful in your
day-to-day life by enhancing your
communication skills, relationships, and
ability to handle stress. It can also aid in
making better decisions in school,
healthcare, and work, and improve your
overall mental health and well-being.
Learning about psychology can help you
comprehend people and the world around you
better and utilize that knowledge to improve
your own life and the lives of those around
you.
Psychology encompasses the scientific study of behaviour
and mental processes. Like marketing, the discipline of
psychology has strong connections to other fields of
inquiry, including philosophy, biology, evolution, and the
social sciences.
It also similarly is comprised of numerous sub-fields, such
as: experimental psychology (e.g. the rules governing
how people perceive, learn and remember); cognitive
psychology (e.g. the mental mechanisms that underlie
how people make judgements and decisions); personality
psychology (e.g. the measurement, origins and influence
of personality differences);
Social psychology (e.g. how individuals’ attitudes, thoughts, emotions, and
behaviours affect and are affected by other people and the social
environment); industrial-organizational psychology (e.g. the factors that
influence job motivation and satisfaction); clinical, counselling and
community psychology (e.g. how behaviour and mental processes become
disordered, and how they can be treated or prevented); and developmental
psychology (e.g. changes in thinking, social skills and personality that occur
throughout the lifespan).
This is but a small sampling of psychology’s sub-fields and their corresponding
topical areas and issues; in fact, the American Psychological Association
formally recognizes 54 specific divisions of the discipline. These areas are
dominated by a core set of psychological constructs; that is, explanatory
concepts that conceptualize intangible elements of the domain studied within
a particular science.
Psychological Constructs and Some
Associated Marketing Areas
Psychological constructs are
important in fields such as
psychology as they assist in
explaining how and why people
think and act in certain ways within
their physical and social
environments. For instance, the
construct of learning helps explain
observable changes in behavior
resulting from experiences, such as
when a customer becomes loyal to a
brand known for its high-quality
products. The usefulness of
psychological constructs extends
beyond the realm of psychology, as
they are fundamental to
comprehending the marketing
process.
Marketers have incorporated various methods used by
psychologists over the years to measure and observe consumer
behavior. These methods include self-report measurement tools
like opinion surveys, attitude and personality scales, projective
techniques such as interpreting ambiguous illustrations, and
interview approaches such as personal journals or diaries and in-
depth interviews. An example of a psychological construct used
in marketing is the need for cognition, which reflects an
individual's tendency to engage in purposive thinking and
problem-solving. This trait is measured using a series of
statements that comprise the need for cognition scale. When
used in advertising research, this scale has shown interesting
differences between high and low need for cognition consumers.
Individuals with a high need for cognition
tend to process advertising information
more thoroughly, remember brand and
brand claims better, and rely more on print
sources for news information compared to
those with a low need for cognition.
According to elaboration likelihood theory,
high need for cognition consumers tend to
base their attitudes on message arguments
and brand features, while low need
consumers use peripheral cues such as
music and emotional elements to guide
their attitudes. Advertisers can benefit
greatly from this insight when designing
message content and selecting channels of
message delivery.
The hybrid field of marketing heavily relies on
knowledge derived from systematic research in
psychology and other related disciplines. One
such example is the pioneering work of
psychologist George Katona, who introduced
survey methodologies to evaluate consumer
expectations and attitudes. His work resulted in
the development of effective predictors of
purchasing behaviour that were eventually
incorporated into the index of consumer
sentiment. This index is now regarded as a
leading economic indicator (Friestad, 2001).
The applied tradition in psychology can be
partly attributed to the work of social
psychologist Kurt Lewin. Lewin's famous
quote "there is nothing as practical as a
good theory" implies that scientific
understanding of behavior can be put to
practical use. During World War II, Lewin
conducted a series of experiments to
determine the most effective persuasive
techniques for encouraging women to
contribute to the war effort by changing
their families' dietary habits.
The aim was to encourage women to reduce
their consumption of expensive meat and
switch to cheaper but still nutritious
options, increase their purchase of milk to
promote the health of their family members,
and ensure their babies' well-being by
feeding them cod-liver oil and orange juice.
Lewin conducted a study to compare the
effectiveness of two types of persuasive
appeals by randomly assigning housewives to
either a lecture or a group discussion on the
recommended changes. The study showed
that active discussions on achieving good
nutrition led to greater changes in eating
habits than passive lectures. listening to
lectures.
Lewin suggested that group processes
had reinforced the desired normative
behavior for individuals who
participated in discussions. Support
groups like Alcoholics Anonymous and
Weight Watchers are, to some extent,
seen as part of Lewin's wartime
research legacy (Brehm and Kassin,
1993).
Although the definition may seem simplistic given the evolving complexity and
breadth of the marketing discipline, it has been suggested that one way of
defining marketing is to consider it as psychology applied to business. In essence,
this definition describes the various ways that the discipline of marketing is
psychological in nature. To achieve this objective, five essential topical areas
exemplify the ways that psychology provides insight into customer behavior and
can be incorporated within formulations for marketing actions and marketing
management decision-making. These areas include motivation, perception,
decision-making, attitudes, and persuasion.