NEHRU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous)
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NAAC with A+, NBA Accredited (Aero & CSE), Recognized by UGC with Section 2(f)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I – Maintenance and Repair Strategies – CE8020

1
 I. Maintenance and Repair Strategies

Maintenance: Maintenance is preventive in nature. Activities include inspection and works necessary to
fulfill the intended function or to sustain original standard of service. The maintenance of structure is
done to meet the following objective:

Prevention of damages due to natural agencies and to keep them in good appearance
and working condition.
Repair of the defects occurred in the structure and strengthen them, if necessary.

The Maintenance work is broadly classified as

a) Preventive Maintenance

b) Remedial Maintenance

c) Routine Maintenance

d) Special Maintenance

e)Preventive Maintenance: The maintenance work done before the defects occurred or damage
developed in the structure is called preventive maintenance. It includes thorough inspection, planning
the programs of maintenance and executing the work It depends upon the specifications, condition and use
of structure.

f)Remedial Maintenance: It is the maintenance done after the defects or damage occurs in the
structure. It involves the following basic steps.

-Finding the deterioration

-Determining the causes

-Evaluating the strength of the existing structure

- Evaluating the need of the structure

-Selecting and implementing the repair procedure

c) Routine Maintenance: It is the service maintenance attended to the structure periodically.

The nature of work done and interval of time at which it is done depends upon specifications and materials
of structure, purpose, intensity and condition of use. It includes white washing, parch repair to plaster,
replacement of fittings and fixtures, binding of road surface.

e) Special Maintenance: It is the work done under special condition and requires sanction and performed
to rectify heavy damage. It may be done for strengthening and updating of the structure to meet the new
condition of usage or to increase its serviceability. It may include particular or complete renewal occurring
at long interval, such as floors, roofs etc.

2
Necessity of maintenance: The causes which necessitate the maintenance effects the service
and durability of the structure as follows:
a) Atmospheric agencies
b) Normal wear and tear
c) Failure of structure

d) Atmospheric agencies

Rain: It is the important source of water, which affects the structure in the following ways;
Physical:

Dissolving and carrying away minerals as it is universal solvent.

Expansion and contraction – The materials is subjected to repetitive expansion and

contraction while they become wet and dry and develops the stresses.

Expansion of water – The variation of temperature causes the expansion and contraction
absorbed water and affects the micro-structures of the materials.

Erosion – Transportation, attrition and abrasion of the materials is quite evident effect of the
water.

Chemical: The water available in nature contains acids and alkaline and other compound in
dissolve form acts over the material to give rise, which is known as chemical weathering.

Wind: It is the agent, which transports the abrasive material and assists the physical
weathering Its action is aggravated during rains and, When it is moving with high speed, it
may contains acidic gases like CO2 fumes which may act over the material and penetrates
quite deeply in materials and structure.

Temperature: The seasonal and annual variation of the temperature, difference in temperature
in two parts of the materials and the surface of material causes expansion and contraction,
this movement of the material bond and adhesion between them is lost when it is repeated.
This is responsible for the development of cracks and the rocks may break away into small
units. Exploitation or peeling off the shell takes place if exterior layer are heated externally
with respect to internal layers. The temperature variation may also cause change in the
structure and chemical composition of the material.

b)Normal Wear and tear: During the use of structure it is subjected to abrasion and
thereby it loses appearance and serviceability.

c)Failure of structure: Failure is defined as the behavior of structure not in agreement

with expected condition of stability or lacking freedom from necessary repair or non-
compliance with desired use of and occupancy of the completed structure. In field it may
result in visual collapse of the structure or even suspension of the services e.g. the collapse
of towers, sliding or over turning of dam, settlement of foundation, crushing of columns etc.

The causes of failure may be broadly grouped as:

3
 Improper Design: Due to incorrect, insufficient data regarding use, loading and
environmental conditions, selection of material and poor detailing.

Defective Construction: Poor materials, poor workmanship, lack of quality.

Facets of maintenance: Maintenance operations have many facets such as

Emergency maintenance: Necessitated by unforeseen breakdown drainage or damage

caused by natural calamity like fire, floods, cyclone earthquake etc.
Condition Based maintenance: Work initiated after due inspection
Fixed time maintenance: Activities repeated at predetermined intervals of time.
Preventive maintenance: This is intended to preserve by preventing failure and
detecting incipient faults (Work is done before failure takes place)
Opportunity maintenance: Work did as and when possible within the limits of operation
demand.
Day-to-Day care and maintenance
Shut down maintenance: Thorough overhaul and maintenance after closing a facility.
Improvement plans: This is essentially maintenance operation wherein the weak links
in the original construction are either replaced by new parts or strengthened.

Importance of Maintenance:

Improves the life of structure

Improved life period gives better return on
investment Better appearance and
aesthetically appealing
Better serviceability of elements and components Leads to quicker
detection of defects and hence remedial measures
Prevents major deterioration and leading to
collapse Ensures safety to occupants
Ensures feeling of confidence on the user
Maintenance is a continuous cycle involves every element of building
science namely
 Structural
 Electrical wiring
 Plumbing-water-supply-sanitation
 Finishes in floors and walls
 Roof terrace
 Service platform/verandah
 Lifts
 Doors windows and other elements

Various aspects Inspection: The following are the various maintenance aspects,

a) Daily Routine Maintenance

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b) Weekly Routine Maintenance

c) Monthly Routine Maintenance

d) Yearly Routine Maintenance

e) Daily Routine Maintenance:

 Basically an inspection oriented and may not contain action to be taken.

 Helps in identifying major changes, development of cracks, identifying new
cracks etc
 Inspection of all essential items by visual observation
 Check on proper function of sewer, water lines, wash basins, sinks etc
 Check on drain pipes from roof during rainy

season. b)Weekly Routine Maintenance:

 Electrical accessories
 Cob webs cleaning
 Flushing sewer line
 Leakage of water ling

c) Monthly Routine Maintenance:

 Cleaning doors, windows‟ latches etc

 Checking septic tank/ sewer
 Observation for cracks in the elements
 Cleaning of overhead tanks
 Peeling of plaster, dampness, floor cracks

d) Yearly Routine Maintenance:

 Attending to small repairs and white washing

 Painting of steel components exposed to weather
 Check of displacements and remedial measures
Repair: Repair is the technical aspect of rehabilitation. Refers to modification of a
structure partly or wholly which is damaged in appearance or serviceability.

Stages of repair: Repair of concrete structure is carried out in the following stages:

e) Removal of damaged concrete

f) Pretreatment of surfaces and reinforcement

g) Application of repair materials

h) Restoring the integrity of individual sections and strengthening of structure as a

whole.

i) Removal of damaged concrete:

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  Prior to the execution of any repair, one essential and common requirement is that
the deteriorated or damaged concrete should be removed.
 Removal of defective concrete can be carried out using tools and equipment the
types of which depend on the damage.
 Normally, removal of concrete can be accomplished by hand tools, or when that is
impractical because of the extent of repair, it can be done with a light or
medium
weight air hammer fitted with a spade shaped bit.
 Care should be taken not to damage the unaffected concrete portions.
 For cracks and other narrow defects, a saw-toothed bit will help achieve sharp edges
and a suitable under cut.

b) Pretreatment of surfaces and reinforcement:

The preparation of a surface/pretreatment for repair involved the following steps:

 Complete removal of unsound material.

 Undercutting along with the formation of smooth edges.
 Removal of the cracks from the surface.
 Formation of a well-defined cavity geometry with rounded inside corners.
 Providing, rough but uniform surface for repair.

The cleaning of all loose particles and oil and dirt out of the cavity should be carried out
shortly before the repair. This cleaning can be achieved by blowing with compressed air,
hosing with water, acid etching, wire brushing, scarifying or a combination. Brooms or
brushes will also help to remove loose material.

c) Application of repair materials:

 After the concrete surface has been prepared, a bonding coat should be applied to
the entire cleaned exposed surface.
 It should be done with minimum delay.
 The bonding coat may consist of bonding agents such ass cement slurry, cement
sand mortar, epoxy, epoxy mortar, resin materials etc.
 Adequate preparation of surface and good workmanship are the ingredients of
efficient and economical repairs.

d) Repair procedure:

The repair of cracked or damaged structure is discussed under two distinct categories,
namely, ordinary or conventional procedures; and special procedures using the latest
techniques and newer materials such as polymers, epoxy resins etc.

A repair procedure may be selected to accomplish one or more of the following

objective:

e) To increase strength or restore load carrying capacity.

f) To restore or increase stiffness.

6
 c) To improve functional performance.

d) To provide water tightness.

e) To improve appearance of concrete surface.

f) To improve durability.

g) To prevent access of corrosive materials to reinforcement.

Durability of concrete Repair: The objective of any repair should be to produce

rehabilitation – which means a repair carried out relatively low cost, with a limited and
predictable degree of change with time and without premature deterioration and/or distress
throughout its intended life and purpose. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to consider the
factors affecting the durability of a repaired structural system as part of a whole, or a
component of composite system. Summarized some of the findings and recommendations
may be grouped into three categories:

1. Durable Repair Design

2. Durable repair application and

3. Evaluation of the repairs.

Assessment Procedure for Evaluating Damages in Structure and Repair techniques:

For assessment of damage of a structure the following general considerations have to be take
account.

1) Physical inspection of damaged structure.

2) Presentation and documenting the damage.

3) Collection of samples and carrying out tests both in situ and in lab.

4) Studying the documents including structural aspects.

5) Estimation of loads acting on the structure.

6) Estimate of environmental effects including soil structure interaction.

7) Diagnosis.

8) Taking preventive steps not to cause further damage.

9) Retrospective analysis to get the diagnosis confirmed.

10) Assessment of structural adequacy.

11) Estimation of future use.

12) Remedial measures necessary to strengthen and repairing the structure.

7
 13) Post repair evaluation through tests.

14) Load test to study the behavior.

15) Choice of course of action for the restoration of structure.

Testing Techniques: A number of non-destructive, partially destructive and destructive

techniques for assessment of concrete structure and to predict the cause of deterioration of
the concrete in the existing structures are available. Interest in the field of Non-Destructive
Testing (NDT) of structure is increasing worldwide. These NDT techniques can be broadly
classified into following four groups:

Strength Tests:

Schmidt Hammer Test

Ultrasonic Pulse
Velocity Pull out and
Pull off Tests Break
off Core Test Windsor
Probe
Pulse Eco Technique

Durability Tests:

Corrosion Tests
Absorption and
Permeability
Test for Alkali Aggregate Reaction
Abrasion Resistance Tests
Rebar Locator Test

Performance and Integrity Tests:

Infrared Thermograph Test

Radar Test Radiography and Radiometry Tests
Acoustic Emission Optical Fibre Test
Impact Echo Tests
Load Testing
Dynamic Response
X-Ray Diffraction

Chemical Tests :

8
 Carbonation test
Sulphate Determination Test
Chloride Determination Test
Thermoluminescence Test
Thermo gravimetric analysis Test
Differential Thermal analysis
Dilatometric Test

With these tests it would be possible to know in-situ strength/quality of concrete to

precise identify the damage and causes of the deterioration of the structure, to predict the
residual life measures to enhance the life of the structure.
Details of few of the tests, which are commonly used in practice, are described
below,
1. Schmidt Hammer Test: Schmidt Hammer Test is a quick method for assessing
the quality of concrete based on surface hardness indicated by the rebound number. If
the strength of concrete is high, then the rebound number is also high. The principal of
this test is that when the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against surface of the
concrete the spring controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such rebound depends
upon the surface hardness of the concrete. The surface hardness and therefore the
rebound number is taken to be related to compressive strength of the concrete.
Rebound number values also depend on angle of measurement.
2. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity test: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (USPV) method is being
extensively used to assess the quality concrete. This test is generally used for
measurement of concrete uniformity, determination of cracking and honeycombing, and
assessment of concrete deterioration. The principal of USPV measurement involves
sending electro-acoustic pulse through a concrete path and measuring the transit time
taken, for a known distance. Pulse velocity is then, computed. Pulse velocity depends
mainly on elastic modulus of concrete. Any factor, which influences the modulus of
elasticity of concrete, will also affect its pulse velocity. The direct method of testing is
the more reliable from the point of view of transmittance measurement, as maximum
pulse energy is transmit at right angles to the face of transmitter.
3. Carbonation Test :Concrete is having micro-pores and these pores are filled with liquid,
having PH –value as high 12.5. Thus, concrete is alkaline in nature. This alkaline of the
concrete is due to (OH) ions in pore water, which are produced by the dissolution of
Ca(OH)2 from the solid phase of the cement gel into pore water and from the caustic
alkalis present namely potassium and sodium oxides. Carbonation of the concrete is the
reaction of Ca(OH)2 with the atmospheric CO2, and its conversion into CaCO3. The
reaction lowers the pH-value of the pore water to about 8.3. The outer zone of concrete
is affected first out due to the passage of time, carbonation proceeds deeper into the
mass as carbon dioxide diffuses inwards from the surface. If carbonation depth becomes
equal to cover of concrete, steel reinforcement is then prone to corrosion
damage. By carbonation test, we measure the carbonated depth of concrete. To
determine the depth of carbonation drilling of a hole is done in stages and the
phenolphalein solution is
9
 sprayed in it after every stage. As soon as the color of the concrete becomes pink,
drilling is stopped and the depth of the hole measured.
4. Core Test :Core test is one of the best methods to assess the strength of the concrete in
reinforced concrete construction. Compression testing and petrographic examination of
cores, cut from hardened concrete, is a well established and most reliable method
enabling visual inspection of the interior regions and direct estimation of the strength.
The results obtained from the other nondestructive tests are generally verified using core
test.
5. Rebar Locator Test: By this test, bar diameter, cover to reinforcement, spacing of
reinforcement, number of reinforcing bars and any discontinuity in the reinforcing bars
can be detected. This test is performed using cover meter which is based on electro-
magnetic theory.
6. Chloride Determination Test: Small amount of chlorides will normally be present in
the concrete. Higher amount of chlorides may give rise to potential of corrosion risk.
Quantity of chlorides in the concrete is generally determined chemically and is expressed
in terms of percentage of chlorides by weight of concretes.
7. Thermo gravimetric and Dilatometric test: Thermo gravimetric and Dilatometry may
be used to assess temperature attained by concrete. As the concrete undergoes irreversible
chemical changes during fire there would be weight loss at about 5000C. Using thermo
gravity curves the temperature attained during fire can be obtained. In dilatometric test,
shrinkage of concrete due to process of dehydratrion is detected. By compaction
expansion with temperature lines that represents dialometric curves for fire damaged
concrete and unaffected concrete, the probable temperature to which concrete was
subjected can be established.
8. Thermo luminescence Test :Thermo luminescence test was proposed by placid and
elaborated by chew. This method is useful in finding out the temperature history of
concrete exposed to a temperature range from 3000C to 500 0C. This method utilizes the
concept that the intensity of emission of visible light on heating versus temperature curve
for a particular material depends on its thermal and radiation history.
9. Differential thermal Analysis Tests: Differential thermal Analysis test is based on
measurement of temperature curve of the concrete samples accompanying the
irreversible physic, chemical transformation at a temperature, heated in surface. This
method consists of heating of sample in platinum crucible with a thermocol embedded in
it. The time temperature curve of sample is compared with that of crucible containing in
material or without my samples. The differential thermal analysis of concrete samples
are conducted pulverized sample of mortar obtained from sound and unsound concrete
with granular size of the concrete passing a sieve of 150 microns and retained on 75
microns sieve.

Causes of Deterioration:

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The following are the causes of failure of structure:

a) Occurrences incidental to construction stage. This could be attributed to

1. Local settlement of sub grade.

2. Movement of formwork.

3. Vibrations.

4. Internal settlement of concrete suspension.

5. Setting Shrinkage.

6. Premature removal forms.

b) Drying Shrinkage

c) Temperature stresses – This may be due to

1. Difference in temperatures between the inside of the building with its environment.

2. Variation in internal temperature of the building or structure.

d) Absorption of moisture by concrete

e) Corrosion of reinforcement – This could be caused by

1. Entry of moisture through cracks or pores.

2. Electrolytic action

f) Aggressive action of chemical

g) Weathering action

h) Action of shock waves

i) Erosion

j) Poor design details at

 Re-entrant corners

 Changes in cross section

 Rigid joints in precast elements

Deflection

s This leads to

1. Leakage
through joints
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 2. Inadequate drainage

3. Inefficient drainage slopes

4. Unanticipated shear stresses in piers, columns and abutments etc

5. Incompatibility of materials of sections

6. Neglect in design

k) Errors in design

l)Errors in earlier

repairs m)Overloading

n) External influences
such as

1. Earthquake

2. Wind

3. Fire

4. Cyclones etc.

Some of the major

causes of deterioration of
concrete structure are
discussed in detail here.

Design and construction flaws: Design of the concrete structures governs the performance
of concrete structures. Well designed and detailed concrete structure will show less
deterioration in comparison with poorly designed and detailed concrete, in the similar
condition. The beam- column joints are particularly prone to defective concrete, if detailing
and placing of reinforcement is not done properly. Inadequate concrete cover may lead to
carbonation depth reaching upto the reinforcement, thus increasing the risk of corrosion of
reinforcement.

Environmental Effects :Micro-cracks present in the concrete are the source of ingress of
moisture and atmospheric carbondioxide into the concrete which attack reinforcement and
react with various ingredients of concrete. In aggressive environment concrete structures will
deteriorate faster and strength life of concrete structure will be severely reduced

Poor Quality material used: Quality of material to be used in construction, should be

ensured by means of various tests as specified by the IS codes. Alkali-aggregate reaction and
sulphate attack results in early deterioration. Clayey materials in the fine aggregate may
weaken the mortar aggregate bond and reduce the strength. Salinity causes corrosion of
reinforcement bars as well as deterioration of concrete.
12

Quality of supervision: Construction work should be carried out as per the l aid
sown
specification. Adherence to specified water/cement ratio controls strength, permeability and
durability of concrete. Insufficient vibration may result in porous and honey combed concrete,
whereas excess vibration may cause segregation.

Deterioration due to corrosion

Spalling of concrete cover

Cracks parallel to the reinforcement
Spalling at edges
Swelling of concrete
Dislocation
Internal cracking
and reduction in
area of steel of
reinforcement

Rehabilitation: Rehabilitation consists of restoring the structure to service level; it once

had and now lost. Strengthening consists in endowing the structure with a service level
higher than that initially planned by modifying the structure not necessarily damaged.

13
 NEHRU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous)
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NAAC with A+, NBA Accredited (Aero & CSE), Recognized by UGC with Section 2(f)

UNIT – II – Strength and Durability of Concrete – CE8020

1
 II. Strength and Durability of Concrete

Quality assurances for concrete construction:

Quality management ensures that every component of the structure keeps performing
throughout its life span. In fact, quality is a measure of the degree of excellence and is indeed
related to fulfillment enjoyed by the user. In concrete construction, even if rigid quality is not
followed, the material performs for a short while without loss of strength. On account of this
forgiving property of concrete, many in the construction industry have been operating under the
illusion that rigid quality management, which is essential for mechanical industries, is not so
important for concrete manufacture. This is not correct. The quality management in the current
day context is based on the fact that the probability of failure of structure must be as low as
possible and definitely lower than a prefixed accepted limit. Hence, quality management
in essence is the management of uncertainties inherent in the construction industry.

Need for Quality Assurance:

All involved with the construction and use of a concrete structure are concerned that the
quality is necessary to give good performance and appearance throughout its intended life. The
client requires it in promoting his next engineering scheme. The designer depends on it for his
reputation and professional satisfaction. The material producer is influenced by the quality of work
in his future sales. The building contractor also relies on it to promote his organization in procuring
future contracts, but his task is often considerably complicated by the problems of time scheduling
and costs. Finally the user is rewarded by a functionally efficient structure of good appearance. It
would seem to follow therefore that since all responsible parties gain by quality it should be
automatically achieved. Yet this is not so, and a considerable positive effort must be employed to
achieve it. This effort can best be expanded by instituting a quality assurances scheme which
involves each of the above parties.

The quality management system in a true sense should have the following three components

1) Quality assurance plan(QAP)

2) Quality control process(QC)

3) Quality Audit(QA)

Quality assurance plan

The following aspects should be addressed by any QAP:

 Organizational Set-up
 Responsibilities of personnel
 Coordinating personnel
 Quality control measure
 Control norms and limit

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  Acceptance/rejection criteria
 Inspection program
 Sampling, testing and documentation
 Material specification and qualification
 Corrective measure for noncompliance
 Resolution of disputed/difficulties
 Preparation of maintenance record

The quality assurance plan starts right from the planning and design stage itself, and it can be
defined as a procedure for selecting a level of quality required for a project.

Quality Control Plan: It is a system of procedures and standards by which the contractor,
the product manufacture and the engineer monitor the properties of the product. Generally
the contracting agency is responsible for the QC process. A contractor responsible for
quality control incurs a cost for it, which is less than the uncontrolled cost for correcting the
defective workmanship or replacing the defective material. Hence it is prudent to introduce
effective quality control.

Quality Audit : This is the system of tracing and documentation of quality assurance
and quality control program. It is the responsibility of the process owner. Both design
and construction processes comes under this process. The concept of QA encompasses the
project as a whole. Each element of the project comes under the preview of quality audit.

Concrete Properties:

Strength : Strength of concrete is one of the most important factors. Concrete is used as
a structural element, and all structural uses are associated with its compressive strength.
Strength of concrete is defined as the resistance that concrete provides against load so as
to avoid failure. It depends on the water-cement ratio, quality of aggregates, compaction,
curing etc. The primary factor that affects the strength of concrete is the quality of cement
paste, which in turn, depends on the quality of water and cement used. Sometimes it is
economical to add pozzolana or use Portland pozzolana cement instead of ordinary cement
concrete. Pozzolanas are materials that have little cementing value but rich with calcium
hydroxide to form compounds that are cementitious. This reaction contributes to the
ultimate strength and watertightnesss of concrete. Pozzolanas also increases the
plasticity and workability of concrete. Excessive addition of pozzolanas affects durability.
So it should be used along with cement as a partial replacement or in small percentage.
Generally construction industry needs faster development of strength in concrete so that the
projects can be completed in time or before time. This demand is catered by high early
strength cement, use of very low W/C ratio through the use of increased cement
concrete and reduced water content. But this result in higher thermal shrinkage, drying
shrinkage, modulus of elasticity and lower creep coefficients. With higher quantity of
cement content, the concrete exhibits greater cracking tendencies because of increase in
thermal and during shrinkage. As the creep coefficient is low in such concrete there will not be
much slope for relaxation of stresses. Therefore high early strength concretes are more prone
to cracking than moderate or low strength concrete. Of course, the structural cracks in high
strength concrete can be controlled by use of sufficient
3
steel reinforcement. But this practice does not help the concrete durability, as provision of
more steel reinforcement; will only results in conversion of the bigger cracks to smaller
cracks. And these smaller cracks are sufficient to allow oxygen, carbon dioxide and moisture
get into the concrete to affect the long term durability of concrete. Field experience have also
corroborated that high early strength concrete are more cracks-prone. According to a recent
report, the cracks in pier caps have been attributed to use of high cement content in concrete.
Contractors apparently thought that a higher than the desired strength would speed up the
construction time, and therefore used high cement content. Similarly, report submitted by
National Cooperative Highway Research Programme(NCHRP) of USA during 1995, based on
their survey showed that more than, 100000 concrete bridge decks in USA showed full depth
transverse cracks even before structures were less than one month old. The reasons given are
that combination of thermal shrinkage and drying shrinkage caused most of the cracks. It is to
be noted that deck concrete is made of high strength concrete. These concrete have a high
elastic modulus at an early age. Therefore, they develop high stresses for a given temperature
change or amount of drying shrinkage. The most important point is that such concrete creeps
little to relieve the stresses.

Permeability: Concrete is a permeable and a porous material. The rates at which liquids and
gases can move in the concrete are determined by its permeability. Permeability affects the
way in which concrete resists external attack and the extent to which a concrete structure can
be free of leaks. The permeability is much affected by the nature of the pores, both their size
and the extent to which they are interconnected. There can therefore be no one measure of
porosity which fully describes the way in which the properties of concrete or of hardened
cement paste are affected.

The high permeability of concrete in actual structures is due to the following reasons:

 The large microcracks with generated time in the transition zone.

 Cracks generated through higher structural stresses.
 Due to volume change and cracks produced on account of various minor reasons.
 Existence of entrapped air due to insufficient compaction.

Thermal Properties: Concrete is a material used in all climatic regions for all kinds of
structures. Thermal properties are important in structures in which temperature differentials
occur including those due to solar radiation during casting and the inherent heat of hydration.
Knowledge of thermal expansion is required in long span bridge girders, high rise buildings
subjected to variation of temperatures, in calculating thermal strains in chimneys, blast furnace
and pressure vessels, in dealing with pavements and construction joints, in dealing with design
of concrete dams and in host of other structures where concrete will be subjected to higher
temperatures such as fire, subsequent cooling, resulting in cracks, loss of serviceability and
durability.

The thermal properties of concrete are more complex than those of most other materials
because these are affected by moisture content and porosity.

To study about the thermal properties of concrete the following properties needs to be known,

4
 Coefficient of thermal expansion
Thermal conductivity
Thermal diffusivity
Specific heat

Cracking

Plastic shrinkage
cracks ;

Water from fresh concrete can be lost by evaporation, absorption of sub grade, formwork and
in hydration process. When the loss of water from the surface of concrete is faster than the
migration of water from interior to the surface dries up. This creates moisture gradient which
results n surface cracking while concrete is still in plastic condition. The magnitude of plastic
shrinkage and plastic shrinkage cracks are depending upon ambient temperature, relative
humidity and wind velocity.

Durability:

Definition: Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to resist weathering
action, chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties.
Different concretes require different degrees of durability depending on the exposures
environment and properties desired. For example, concrete exposed to tidal seawater will have
different requirements than an indoor concrete floor. Concrete ingredients, their proportioning,
interactions between them, placing and curing practices, and the service environment
determine the ultimate durability and life of concrete.

Some important degradation mechanisms in concrete structures include the following:

1. Freeze-thaw damage (physical effects, weathering).

2. Alkali-aggregate reactions (chemical effects).

3. Sulphate attack(chemical effects).

4. Microbiological induced attack (chemical effects).

5. Corrosion of reinforcing steel embedded in concrete (chemical effects).

a) carbonation of concrete

b) Chloride induced.

6. Abrasion (physical effects).

7. Mechanical loads (physical effects).

Effect of freezing and thawing:

 The most severe climate attack on concrete occurs when concrete containing moisture
is subjected to cycles of freezing
5 and thawing.
  The capillary pores in the cement are of such a size that water in them will
freeze when the ambient temperatures is below 0 degree celsius.
 The gel pores are so small that water in them does not freeze at normal winter
temperatures.
 As water when freezing expands by 9% of its volume, excess water in the capillaries
has to move.
 Since the cement paste is relatively impermeable, high pressures are necessary to
move the excess water even over quite small distance.
 For normal strength concrete it has been found that movement of the order of 0.2mm
is sufficient to require pressures which approach the tensile strength of the paste.
 Concrete can be protected from freeze – thaw damage, by the entrainment of
appropriate quantities of air distributed through the cement paste with spacing
between bubbles ofnot more than about 0.4mm.
 The air bubbles must remain partially empty so that they can accommodate the excess
water moved to them.
 This will generally be the case since the bubbles constitute the coarsest pore system
and are therefore the first to lost moisture as the concrete dries.
 Fully saturated concrete, if permanently submerged, will not need protection against
freezing, but concrete which as been saturated and is exposed to freezing, as for
example in the tidal range, may not be effectively protected by air-entrainment.

Effect of Temperature:

 The temperature difference within a concrete structure, result in differential

volume change.
 When the tensile strain due to differential volume change exceeds the tensile
strain capacity of concrete, it will crack.
 The temperature differentials associated with the hydration of cement, affect the
mass concrete such as in large columns, piers, footings, dams etc.
 Whereas the temperature differentials due to changes in the ambient temperature
can affect the whole structure.
 The liberation of the heat of hydration of cement causes the internal temperature
of concrete to rise during the initial curing period, so that is is usually slightly
warmer than its surroundings.
 In thick sections and with rich mixes the temperature differential may be
considerable.
 As the concrete cools it will try to contract. Any restraint on the free contraction
during cooling will result in tensile stresses which are proportional to the
temperature change, coefficient of thermal expansion, effective modulus of
elasticity and degree of restraint.
 The more massive the structure, the greater is the potential for
temperature differential and degree of restraint.
 Thermally induced cracking can be reduced by controlling the maximum internal
temperature, delaying the onset of cooling by insulating the formwork and
exposed surfaces, controlling the rate of cooling, and increasing the tensile strain
6
 capacity of the concrete.
 Special precautions need to be taken in the design of structures in which some
portions are exposed to temperature changes while the other portions of structures
are either partially or completely protected.
 A drop in temperature may result in the cracking of the exposed element while
increase in temperature may cause cracking in the protected portion of the
structure.
 Temperature gradients cause deflection and rotation in structural members; if
these are restrained serious stresses can result.
 Allowing for movement by using properly designed contraction joints and correct
detailing will help alleviate these [Link] the cracks do form.
 Remedial measures are similar to those for cracks that form after a structure in
service.

Effect of chemical:

The most important constituent of concrete namely cement is alkaline; so it will react with
acids or acidic compounds in presence of moisture, and in consequence the matrix becomes
weakened and its constituents may be leached out. The concrete may crack, as a result of
expansive reactions between aggregate containing active silica and alkalies derived from
cement hydration, admixture or external sources(e.g. curing water, ground water, alkaline
solutions stored). The alkali – silica reaction results in the formation of a swelling gel, which
tends to draw water from other portions of concrete. This causes local expansion and
accompanying tensile stresses which if large may eventually result in the complete
deterioration of the structure. Control measures include proper selection of aggregate, use of
low-alkali cement and use of pozzolana. Typical symptoms in unreinforced and highly
reinforced concrete are map cracking, usually in a rough hexagonal mesh pattern and gel
excluding from cracks. The alkali-carbonate reactions occurs with certain limestone aggregate
and usually results in the formation of alkali- silica product between aggregate particiles and
the surrounding cement paste. The problem may be minimized by avoiding reactive aggregate,
use of smaller size aggregate and use of low-alkali cement. When the sulphate bearing waters
come in contact with the concrete, the sulphate penetrates the hydrated paste and reacts with
hydrated calcium aluminate to form calcium suphoaluminate with a subsequent large increase
in volume, resulting in high tensile stresses causing the deterioration of concrete. The blended
or pozzolana cements impart additional resistance to sulphate attacks. The calcium hydroxide
in hydrated cement paste will combine with carbon dioxide in the air to form calcium
carbonate which occupies smaller volume tan the calcium hydroxide resulting called
carbonation shrinkage.
Effect of Corrosion:

Formation of white patches:CO2 reacts with Ca(OH)2 in the cement paste to form CaCO3.
The free movement of water carries the unstable CaCO3 towards the surface and forms white
patches. It indicates the occurrences of carbonation.

Brown patches along reinforcement: When reinforcement starts corroding, a layer a ferric
oxide is formed. This brown product resulting from corrosion may permeate along with
moisture to the concrete surface without cracking of the concrete.

Occurrence of cracks: The increase in volume exerts considerable bursting pressure on the
7
surrounding concrete resulting in cracking. The hair line crack in the concrete surface lying
directly above the reinforcement and running parallel to it is the positive visible indication
that reinforcement is corroding. These cracks indicate that the expanding rust had grown
enough to split the concrete.

Formation of multiple cracks: As corrosion progresses, formation of multiple layers of rust

on the reinforcement which in turn exert considerable pressure on the surrounding concrete
resulting in widening of hair cracks. In addition, a number of new hair cracks are also
formed. The bond between concrete and the reinforcement is considerably reduced. There
will be a hollow sound when the concrete is tapped at the surface with a light hammer.

Snapping of bars: The continued reduction in the size of bars results in snapping of the
bars. This will occur in ties/stirrups first. At this stage, size of the main bars is reduced.

Buckling of bars and bulging of concrete The spalling of the cover concrete and snapping
of ties causes the main bars to buckle. This results in bulging of concrete in that region. This
follows collapse of the structure. When corrosion of reinforcement starts, the deterioration is
usually slow but advances in geometrical progression. Corrosion can also cause structural
failure due to reduced C/S and hence reduced load carrying capacity. It is possible to arrest the
process of corrosion at any stage by altering the corrosive environment in the vicinity of the
reinforcement.

Design Errors and Construction Errors:

Design Errors:

Design errors may be divided into two general types:

1. Those resulting from inadequate structural design

[Link] resulting from lack of attention to relatively minor

design details. Each of the two types of design errors is discussed

below.
(1) Inadequate structural design. (

a) Mechanism:The failure mechanism is simple – the concrete is exposed to greater stress than
it is capable of carrying or it sustains greater strain than its strain capacity.

(b)Symptoms. Visual examinations of failures resulting from inadequate structural

design will usually show one of two symptoms.

[Link], errors in design resulting in excessively high compressive stresses will result
in spalling. Similarly, high torsion or shear stresses may also result in spalling or
cracking.

2. Second, high tensile stresses will result in cracking.

To identify inadequate design as a cause of damage, the locations of the damage should be
compared to the types of stresses that should be
8
present in the concrete. For example, if spalls
are present on the underside of a simple-supported beam, high compressive stresses are not
present and inadequate design may be eliminated as a cause. However, if the type and
location of the damage and the probable stress are in agreement, a detailed stress analysis will
be required to determine whether inadequate design is the cause. Laboratory analysis is
generally not applicable in the case of suspected inadequate design. However, for
rehabilitation projects, thorough petro graphic analysis and strength testing of concrete from
elements to be reused will be necessary.

(c) Prevention:

Inadequate design in prevented by thorough and careful review of all design calculations.
Any rehabilitation method that makes use of existing concrete structural members must be
carefully reviewed.
(2) Poor design details :

A structure may be adequately designed to meet loadings and other overall requirements,
poor detailing may result in localized concentrations of high stresses in otherwise satisfactory
concrete. These high stresses may result in cracking that allows water or chemicals access to
the concrete. In other cases, poor design detailing may simply allow water to pond on a
structure, resulting in saturated concrete. In general, poor detailing does not lead directly to
concrete failure; rather, it contributes to the action of one of the other causes of concrete
deterioration described in this chapter. Several specific types of poor detailing and their
possible effects on a structure are described in the following paragraphs. In general, all of
these problems can be prevented by a thorough and careful review of plans and specifications
for the project.

Construction Errors:

Failure to follow specified procedures and good practice or outright carelessness may lead to
a number of conditions that may be grouped together as construction errors. Most of these
errors do not lead directly to failure or deterioration of concrete. Instead, they enhance the
adverse impacts of other mechanisms. Each error will be briefly described along with
preventative methods. In general, the best preventive measure is a thorough knowledge of
what these construction errors are, plus an aggressive inspection program. It should be noted
that errors of the type described in this section are equally as likely to occur during repair or
rehabilitation projects as they are likely to occur during new construction.

(a)Adding water to concrete. Water is usually added to concrete in one or both of

the following circumstances:

[Link], water is added to the concrete in a delivery truck to increase slump and
decrease emplacement effort. This practice will generally lead to concrete with lowered
strength and reduced durability. As the w/c of the concrete increases, the strength and
durability will decrease.

[Link] the second case, water is commonly added during finishing of flatwork. This
practice leads to scaling, crazing, and dusting of the concrete in service.

(b) Improper alignment of formwork.

9
Improper alignment of the formwork will lead to discontinuities on the surface of the
concrete. While these discontinuities are unsightly in all circumstances, their occurrence may
be more critical in areas that are subjected to high-velocity flow of water, where cavitations
erosion may be induced, or in lock chambers where the “rubbing” surfaces must be straight.

(c) Improper consolidation.

Improper consolidation of concrete may result in a variety of defects, the most common being
bugholes, honeycombing, and cold joints. “Bugholes” are formed when small pockets of air
or water are trapped against the forms. A change in the mixture to make it less “sticky” or the
use of small vibrators worked near the form has been used to help eliminate bugholes.
Honeycombing can be reduced by inserting the vibrator more frequently, inserting the
vibrator as close as possible to the form face without touching the form, and slower
withdrawal of the vibrator. Obviously, all of these defects make it much easier for any
damage-causing mechanism to initiate deterioration of the concrete. Frequently, a fear of
“overconsolidation” is used to justify a lack of effort in consolidating concrete.
Overconsolidation is usually defined as a situation in which the consolidation effort causes all
of the coarse aggregate to settle to the bottom while the paste rises to the surface. If this
situation occurs, it is reasonable to conclude that there is a problem of a poorly proportioned
concrete rather than too muchconsolidation.

(d) Improper curing.

Curing is probably the most abused aspect of the concrete construction process. Unless
concrete is given adequate time to cure at a proper humidity and temperature, it will not
develop the characteristics that are expected and that are necessary to pro-vide durability.
Symptoms of improperly cured concrete can include various types of cracking and surface
disintegration. In extreme cases where poor curing leads to failure to achieve anticipated
concrete strengths, structural cracking may occur.

(e) Improper location of reinforcing steel.

This section refers to reinforcing steel that is improperly located or is not adequately secured
in the proper location. Either of these faults may lead to two general types of problems.

[Link], the steel may not function structurally as intended, resulting in structural cracking
or failure. A particularly prevalent example is the placement of welded wire mesh in floor
slabs. In many case, the mesh ends up on the bottom of the slab which will subsequently
crack because the steel is not in the proper location.

[Link] second type of problem stemming from improperly located or tied reinforcing steel
is one of durability. The tendency seems to be for the steel to end up near the surface of
the concrete. As the concrete cover over the steel is reduced, it is much easier for corrosion
to begin.

(f) Movement of formwork Movement of formwork during the period while the concrete is
going from fluid to a rigid material may induce cracking and separation within the concrete.

10
A crack open to the surface will allow access of water to the interior of the concrete. An
internal void may give rise to freezing or corrosion problems if the void becomes saturated.

(g)Premature removal of shores or reshores. If shores or reshores are removed too

soon, the concrete affected may become overstressed and cracked. In extreme cases there
may be major failures.
(h)Settling of the concrete. During the period between placing and initial setting of
the concrete, the heavier components of the concrete will settle under the influence of
gravity. This situation may be aggravated by the use of highly fluid concretes.

Effect of Cover Thickness;

There is a substantial experience which relates durability and the amount of water. The
thicker the cover over the steel is, the longer it will take the chloride ions to reach the steel
and reduce the pH and passivity provided by the cement. However, excessive cover can led to
the development of a few wide cracks under overstress, whereas a thinner cover results in
many small cracks

11
UNIT – III – Special Concrete– CE8020

1
Fibre Reinforced Concrete :FRC can be defined as a composites material, consisting of mixtures of
cement mortar or concrete and discontinuous, discrete uniformly dispersed suitable fibres. Fibre is a
small piece of reinforcing material that can be circular or flat. Properties of FRC: It have more tensile
strength. Fibres improve the impact and abrasion resistance of concrete. It posses high compressive
strength. It posses low thermal and electricalconductivity.

Aspect ratio: The fibre is often described by a convenient parameter called “aspect ratio”
The aspect ratio of the fibre is the ratio of its length to its diameter. Typical aspect ratio ranges from 30 to
150.

Types of Fibres:

1. Steel Fibres

2. Glass Fibres

3. Polypropylene Fibres

4. Slurry Infiltrated Fibre Concrete (SIFCON)

5. Asbestos fibre

6. Carbon fibre

Polymer Resin based Coating:

These are generally of two types,

7. Resins blended with organic solvents

8. Solvent free coating

Solvent-based coatings are subdivided into single and two component coatings. The coatings on
drying produce a smooth dense continuous film that provides a barrier to moisture and mild chemical
attack of the concrete. Because of the resistance to moisture penetration, staining, and ease of cleaning, they
are preferred for locations of high humidity and those in which a lot of soiling occurs. Most products are
low solids content materials which require multiple coats to produce a continuous film over concrete,
since the materials are thermoplastic, and have a significant degree of extensibility they are capable of
bridging minor cracks which may develop in the concrete surface if they are applied in sufficient thickness.
The number of coats required depends on the surface texture, porosity and the targeted dry film thickness.
Although some of the newer products have some moisture tolerance, enabling them to be applied over
damp surfaces, in normal usage they should be applied over dry surfaces. Due to their relative in
permeability to water vapor, they could blister. When applied to concrete surfaces with high moisture
content or where the opposite surface of the concrete is in constant contact with moisture. Careful control of
wet film thickness is therefore necessary during application. Two component polymer coatings consist
of a solution of a compounded polymer with or without solvent and a reactive chemical component
called the curing agent hardener or catalyst. The materials are usually mixed just prior to use in accordance
with the manufacturer‟s instructions.
When using two components polymer based coatings the following items are of importance to the application
of the materials.

[Link] produces are supplied as a kit containing the two components in the required proportions.
Therefore, in order to realize the full potential of the product the correct mix
ratio of the two components must be used.

2. To ensure a complete reaction of the two components they must be mixed thoroughly.

[Link] two component material require an induction period of 15 to 40 min after mixing. Therefore, such
products cannot be used immediately after mixing.

[Link] reduction by the use of thinners should be resorted to only after the manufacturers
are consulted.

[Link] storage temperature of solvent based coatings is not critical. They should be stored are a
temperature 16 to 32◦c just prior to use.

Vacuum Concrete:

It is well known that high water/cement ratio is harmful to the overall quality of concrete, whereas
low water/cement ratio does not give enough workability for concrete to be compacted hundred percentage.
Generally, higher workability and higher strength or very low workability and higher strength do not go
hand in hand. Vacuum process of concreting enables to meet this conflicting demand. This process helps
a high workable concrete to get high strength. In this process, excess water used for higher workability, not
required for hydration and harmful in many ways to the hardened concrete is withdrawn by means of
vacuum pump, subsequent to the placing of the concrete. The process when properly applied produces
concrete of quality. It also permits removal of formwork at an early age to be used in other repetitive
work. It essentially consists of a vacuum pump, water separator and filtering mat. The filtering consists of
a backing piece with a rubber seal all round the periphery. A sheet of expanded metal and then a sheet of
wire gauge also form part of the filtering mat. The top of the suction mat is connected to the vacuum pump.
When the vacuum pump operates, suction is created within the boundary of the suction mat and the excess of
water is sucked from the concrete through the fine wire gauge or muslin cloth. At least one face of the
concrete must be open to the atmosphere to create difference of pressure. The contraction of concrete caused
by loss of water must be vibrated.

The Gunite or shotcrete:

It can be defined as mortar conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at a high velocity
onto a surface. Recently this method has been further developed by the introduction of small sized
coarse aggregate into the mix deposited to obtain considerably greater thickness in one operation and to
make the process economical by reducing the cement content. Normally fresh material with zero slump can
support itself without sagging or peeling off. The force of the jet impacting on the surface compact
the material. Sometimes use of set accelerators to assist overhead placing is practiced. The newly
developed “Redi-set cement” can also be used for shotcreting process. There is not much difference
between guniting and shotcreting. Gunite was first used in the early 1900 and this process is mostly used
for pneumatical application of mortar of less thickness, whereas shotcrete is a recent development on the
similar principle of guniting for achieving greater thickness with small coarse aggregates.
There are two different processes in use, namely the “Wet-mix” process and the “dry-mix”
process. The dry mix process is more successful and generally used.

Dry-mix Process: The dry mix process consists of number of stages and calls for some
specialized plan. A typical small plant set-up is shown. This material is carried by
compressed air through the delivery hose to a special nozzle. The nozzle is fitted inside
with a perforated manifold through which water is sprayed under pressure and intimately
mixed with the sand/cement jet. The wet mortar is jetted from the nozzle at high velocity
onto the surface to gunited.

Wet-mix process:In the wet-mix process the concrete is mixed with water as for ordinary
concrete before conveying through the delivery pipe line to the nozzle, at which point it is
jetted by a compressed air, onto the work in the same way, as that of dry-mix process. The
wet-mix process has been generally discarded in favour of dry-mix process, owing to the
greater success of the latter. The dry-mix method makes use of high velocity or low
velocity system fully. The high velocity gunite is produced by using the small nozzle and a
high air pressure to produce a high nozzle velocity of about 90 to 120 meters/sec. This
results in exceptional good compaction. The lower velocity gunite is produced using large
diameter hose for large output. The compaction will not be very high.

General use of Shotcrete

[Link] is useful where considerable savings and peculiar adaptability is needed and it is
more suitable than conventional placing methods.

[Link] and formwork need be erected only on side of the work and hence there
will be considerable saving in the shuttering costs.

[Link] can be conveyed over a considerable diameter pipe, makes this process suitable
for sites where access is difficult.

[Link] maximum rate of deposition is about 15 m3 hr for the dry process but this can
be exceeded with the wet process.

[Link] low water-cement ratio, the thinness of the section deposited and the fact
that normally only one side of the concrete is covered, necessitates careful attention to
curing more than with normal concrete.

[Link] normal specifications with respect to cement, aggregate and water, also apply
for shotcrete, but it is desirable that the aggregate should be harder to allow for attrition.

7. Admixtures can be used in shotcrete to produce the same effects as in ordinary concrete.

[Link] drying shrinkage will depend on the water content and may, therefore, be
expected to be fairly low for the dry process. The creep of the dry shocrete is similar to
that of high quality normally placed concrete but shrinkage and creep of wet shocrete is
likely to be high.
9. The durability or resistance to frost action and other agencies of dry shotcrete is good.

10. About half of the entrained air is likely to be lost while spraying.

Epoxy Injection:

The Injection of polymer under pressure will ensure that the sealant penetrates to the
full depth of the crack. The technique in general consists of drilling hole at close intervals
along the length of cracks and injecting the epoxy under pressure in each hole in turn until
it starts to flow out of the next one. The hole in use is then sealed off and injection is started
at the next hole and so on until full length of the crack has been treated. Before injecting the
sealant, it is necessary to seal the crack at surface between the holes with rapid curing resin.
For repairs of cracks in massive structures, a series of holes (Usually 20mm in dia and
20mm deep spaced at 150 to 300mm interval) intercepting the crack at a number of
location are drilled. Epoxy injection can be used to bond the cracks as narrow as 0.05mm.
It has been successfully used in the repair of cracks in buildings, bridges, dams and other
similar structures. However, unless the cause of cracking is removed, cracks will probably
recur possibly somewhere else in the structure. Moreover, in general this technique is not
very effective if the cracks are actively leaking and cannot be dried out. Epoxy injection is a
highly specialized job requiring a high degree of skill for satisfactory execution.

The general steps involved are as follows.

Preparation of the surface: The contaminated cracks are cleaned by removing all oil,
grease, dirt and fine particles of concrete which prevent the epoxy penetration and bonding.
The contaminants should preferably be removed by flushing the surface with water or a
solvent. The solvent is then blown out using compressed air, or by air drying. The surface
cracks should be sealed to keep the epoxy from leaking out before it has cured or gelled. A
surface can be sealed by brushing an epoxy along, the surface of cracks and allowing it to
harden. If extremely high injection pressures are needed, the crack should be routed to a
depth of about 12mm and width of about 20mm in V-shape, filled with an epoxy, and stuck
off flush with the surface.

Installation of entry ports: The entry port or nipple is an opening to allow the injection of
adhesive directly into the crack without leaking. The spacing of injection ports depends
upon a number of factors such as depth of crack, width or crack and its variation with
depth, viscosity of epoxy, injection pressure etc. and choice must be based on experience.
In case of V-grooving of the cracks, a hole of 20mm dia and 12 to25mm below the apex of
V-grooved section, is drilled into the crack. A tire-calue stren is bonded with an epoxy
adhesive in the hole. In case the cracks are not V-grooved, the entry port is provided by
bonding a fitting, having a hat-like croos-section with an opening at the top for adhesive to
enter, flush with the concrete face over the crack.

Mixing of epoxy: The mixing can be done either by batch or continuous methods. In batch
mixing, the adhesive components are premixed in specified proportions with a mechanical
stirrer, in amounts that can be used prior to the commencement of curing of the material.
With the curing of material, pressure injection becomes more and more difficult. In the
continuous mixing system, the two liquid adhesive components pass through metering and
driving pumps prior to passing through an automatic mixing head. The continuous mixing
system allows the use of fast-setting adhesives that have short working life.

Injection of epoxy: In its simplest form, the injection equipment consists of a small
reservoir or funnel attached to a length of flexible tubing, so as to provide a gravity head.
For small quantities of repair material small hand-held guns are usually the most
economical. They can maintain a steady pressure which reduces chances of damage to the
surface seal. For big jobs power-driven pumps are often used for injection. The pressure
used for injection must be carefully selected, as the use excessive pressure can propagate
the existing cracks, causing additional damage. The injection pressures are governed by the
width and depth of cracks and the viscosity of resin and seldom exceed 0.10Mpa. It is
preferable to inject fine cracks under low pressure in order to allow the material to be
drawn into the concrete by capillary action and it is a common practice to increase the
injection pressure during the course of work to overcome the increase in resistance against
flow as crack is filled with material. For relatively wide cracks gravity head of few hundred
millimeters may be enough.

Removal of surface seal: After the injected epoxy has occurred; the surface seal may be
removed by grinding or other means as appropriate. Fittings and holes at the entry ports
should be painted with an epoxy patching compound.