THE DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
• Anatomically and
functionally
can be divided into:

• a tubular
digestive tract
• accessory organs.
• The GI tract (gastrointestinal
tract)
The muscular alimentary canal
– Mouth
– Pharynx
– Esophagus
– Stomach
– Small intestine
– Large intestine
– Anus

• The accessory digestive

organs
Supply secretions contributing to
the breakdown of food
– Teeth & tongue
– Salivary glands
– Gallbladder
– Liver
– Pancreas
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• This involves the following functional activities
– Ingestion: Taking in food through the
mouth
– Mechanical digestion
• Chewing (Mastication), Churning in stomach, and Mixing by
segmentation
– Deglutition: Swallowing
– Chemical digestion: by secreted enzymes
– Absorption: Transport of digested end products into blood
and lymph in wall of canal
– Peristalsis: (movement of food) :propulsion by alternate
contraction &relaxation
– Defecation: Elimination of indigestible substances from
body as feces
• Mouth
• It is formed by
– the cheeks,
– lips,
– hard and soft
palates,
– tongue.
• The oral cavity is
divided into
– the vestibule
– the mouth proper.
• hard palate: formed by
– Palatine bone and maxilla
– Anterior 2/3rd of palate
• soft palate-
– the mobile fibromuscular
structure
– Attached to posterior border
of hard palate
– Forms posterior 1/3rd of
palate
• The uvula –
– is a fleshy muscular conical
process, extends downward
from soft palate
 Teeth
• Hard structure in the mouth, attached to alveolar
processes of maxilla and mandible
• Heterodont (having different types of teeth)
dentition,
• Diphyodont (growing baby and adult teeth)
• Two sets
– Primary or deciduous
• “Baby” teeth
• Start at 6 months
• 20 are out by about 2 years
• Fall out between 2-6 years
– Permanent: 32 total
• All but 3rd set of molars by end of adolescence
An adult human has four
types of teeth:
are classified according to
shape and function
Incisors: chisel-
shaped for chopping
off pieces
Canines: cone
shaped to tear and
pierce

Premolars (bicuspids) and

Molars - broad crowns with 4-5 rounded cusps for grinding
 Tooth has
• Two main regions (parts) A
A. Crown (exposed)
B. Root (in socket) C
C. Meet at neck
Structure of tooth
• Enamel B
– 99% calcium crystals
– Hardest substance in body
– Transparent glassy outer
part covers dentin over
crown
• Dentin – bulk of the tooth
– bone-like but harder than • Gum
bone, with collagen and – is attached to the adjacent
mineral. alveolar bone and to the
cementum of each tooth by
fibre bundles 8
 Tooth structure
• Cementum – bone layer of tooth root
– Thin layer of hard tissue as bone, covers dentine over root
– Attaches tooth to periodontal ligament
• Periodontal ligament
– Anchors tooth in boney socket of the jaw
– Continuous with gingiva (gums)
• Cavities or caries - rot
• Plaque – film of sugar, bacteria and debris
• pulp : Soft innermost portion of the tooth, made-up of
loose CT.
– consists of tiny blood vessels, and a nerve and occupies a
cavity located in the Centre of the tooth.
• Pulp canal is long and narrow that extends almost the whole
length of the tooth and communicates with the body’s general
nutritional and nervous systems through the apical foramina (holes)
at the end of the roots. 9
Tongue
• Specialized muscular (skeletal) organ over floor of oral cavity, is
divided into two by a V-shaped depression whose posteriorly
pointing ends in a shallow pit, the foramen cecum, the sulcus
terminalis :
• body or oral part: an anterior 2/3rd and
• Root or pharyngeal part: a posterior 1/3rd,
• dorsal surface: covered on its by stratified squamous
nonkeratinized to keratinized epithelium,
• ventral surface: is covered by NKSSE.
• possesses numerous minor salivary glands interspersed among
the muscle fibers
i. Lingual papillae
• are located on the dorsal surface of the anterior two- thirds of
the tongue.
• are classified into four types differing in shape and function.
a. Filiform papillae
• are short, narrow, highly keratinized pointed structures project
 b. Fungiform papillae
• are mushroom- shaped structures that project above the
surface of the tongue.
• are interspersed among the filiform papillae.
• contain occasional taste buds.
c. Foliate papillae
• are shallow, longitudinal furrows located on the lateral aspect
of the tongue.
d. Circumvallate papillae
• are large, circular papillae each of which is surrounded by a
moat- like furrow.
• are 10-15 in number, distributed in a V pattern just anterior to
the sulcus terminalis.
ii. Glands of von Ebner
• their serous secretion assisting the taste buds in perceiving
stimuli.
iii. Lingual tonsils
• are located on the dorsal surface of the posterior one-third of
• Salivary Glands

– secret saliva (mixture of water, ions, mucus, enzymes).

– Saliva has various functions:
• Serves as a solvent
• cleansing the teeth and
• dissolving food chemicals so that they can be
tasted
• Contains enzymes which digest starch
• Contains mucous which lubricates the pharynx
to facilitate swallowing
• Intrinsic salivary glands – lies within mucosa of different areas of
mouth like palate, tongue, and also pharynx
– Secrete saliva all the time to keep mouth moist
• Extrinsic salivary glands: there are three paired :
– the parotid,
– submandibular and
– sublingual glands.
• The parotid gland
– is the largest salivary glands
– is located anterior and inferior to the auricle, facial
nerve gives branches for muscles of face here.
– The parotid duct, which is about 5cm long drains into the
oral cavity opposite the 2nd upper molar.
 • The sumandibular glands
– are U- shaped salivary glands
– lie along the body of the
mandible on its inner side.
– Their duct opens into the floor
of the mouth.

• The sublingual glands

– are the smallest and the most
deeply located (in the floor of the
mouth)
– Their ducts (10 – 12) open into the
floor of the mouth
 • innervated by both divisions of
the ANS
• Sympathetic impulses
– stimulate the secretion of
small amounts of viscous
saliva,

• parasympathetic
– stimulates the secretion of
large amount of watery
saliva.
– daily abt 1, 000 to 1, 500 ml
of saliva is secreted
III. Histological Layers of the GIT

– similar throughout the alimentary canal (from pharynx

to anus), but display characteristic regional specialization
A. Mucosa: inner most layer, has 3 sublayers
1. Epithelium
• Mostly simple columnar, except eosophagus (NKSSE) and anus
(both NKSSE and KSSE at lower end).
• lines the lumen of the alimentary canal.
2. Lamina propria
• consists of loose connective tissue housing glands and
lymphoid accumulations.
3. Muscularis mucosae
• is composed of one to three layers of smooth muscle.
• is responsible for the motility of the mucosa
B. Submucosa
– consists of dense irregular collagenous or fibroelastic connective
tissue.
– contains glands only in the esophagus and duodenum
– houses Meissner’s (submucosal) nerve plexus.
C. Muscularis externa
– is composed of two layers of smooth muscle (three layers in the
stomach),
– houses Auerbach’s (myenteric) nerve plexus, which is primarily
responsible for its innervation.
– is responsible for gut motility, which is controlled by, innervation,
stretching of the muscle, and several paracrine hormones.
D. External layer
– 1. Serosa consists of a mesothelial lining (peritoneum) over a layer
of loose connective tissue.
– 2. Adventitia consists only of loose connective tissue.
• Esophagus
– is a collapsible muscular tube (25cm) that connects the pharynx to
the stomach, and descends through neck and thorax posterior to
the trachea and heart.
– It passes through the diaphragm in an opening called esophageal
hiatus.
– The lumen of esophagus is lined with a NKSSE.
– The Muscular coat:
• upper third: contains skeletal muscle,
• middle third: contains both skeletal and smooth muscle,
• terminal portion: contains only smooth muscle.
– The lumen of the terminal portion of the esophagus is slightly
narrowed due to the presence of the lower esophageal
(gastroesophageal) sphincter.
– This prevents regurgitation of stomach contents into the
esophagus.
• Stomach
– The stomach is a J-shaped pouch; and is the
most distensible and widest part of the GIT.
– The functions of the stomach are:
• to store food as it is mechanically churned with
gastric secretions
• to initiate the digestion of proteins
• to carry out limited absorption
• to move food into the small intestine as a
chyme (pasty material)
• Secretion of gastric juice
 Stomach cont….
• Lies mostly in LUQ epigastrium

– But pain can be epigastric or

lower
• Just inferior to (below)
diaphragm
• Anterior (in front of) spleen
and pancreas
• Tucked under left lower margin dome
of liver
• Anchored at both ends but junction with
esophagus
mobile in between
• Main regions in drawing to contains pyloric
sphincter
right--------------------------------
• Capacity: 1.5 L food; max
capacity 4L (1 gallon) funnel shaped

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The stomach is divided into four regions
– Cardiac: - the narrow upper region immediately below
the gastroesophangeal sphincter
– Fundus: - the dome shaped portion to the left and in
direct contact with diaphragm
– Body: - the lager central portion
Pylorus:- the funnel
shaped terminal
portion.
 Here stomach
communicates
with the
duodenum
through a pyloric
sphincter.
 • Rugae:
longitudinal folds
on internal
surface (helps
dispensability)

The stomach has:

• two surfaces: anterior and posterior surfaces
• two borders
 the concave lesser curvature medially (on right) and
 the convex greater curvature laterally (on left).
Histology of stomach
Epithelial layer of stomach
• Simple columnar
epithelium: secrete
bicarbonate-buffered
mucus
• gastric glands: formed
from inward growth of
epithelium into underlying
lamina propria. Opens on
surface via gastric pits
Cells over epithelium of
stomach
– Mucus neck cells: produce
mucus
– Parietal cells
• Produce HCL and Intrinsic
factor (for B12 absorption)
– Chief cells: produce
• Pepsinogen (activated to
pepsin with HCL)
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 Small intestine
• It is the longest (2.75m-5m) portion of the GIT b/n
the pyloric sphincter of the stomach and the
ileocecal valve opening into the large intestine.
– is the site where digestion is completed and nutrients
are absorbed.
– The surface area of the intestinal wall is increased by
villi, and microvilli.
– It is supported, except for the first portion, by the
mesentery.
– Enclosed within the mesentery are blood vessels, nerves
and lymphatic vessels that supply the intestinal wall.
• The functions the small intestine are
– the reception of the secretions from the liver and
pancreas,
– mechanical breakdown of chime,
– absorption of nutrients and
– transportation of the remaining undigested material to
the large intestine.
• The small intestine is divided into three regions
• These are
– the duodenum,
– jejunum and
– ileum.
• The duodenum
– is a relatively fixed C- shaped tube (25cm long)
– extend from the pyloric sphincter to the duodenojejunal
flexure.
– Its left concave surface receives bile secretions through
the common bile duct from the liver and gallbladder, and
pancreatic secretions through the duct of the pancreas.
– Both ducts unite to form a common entry into the
duodenum called the hepatopancreatic ampulla (or
ampulla of Vater), which pierces the duodenal wall and
drains into the duodenum from an elevation called the
duodenal papilla.
– There are compound tubuloacinar glands which secrete
mucus and are the most numerous near the superior
end of the duodenum.
• The jejunum
– (1m long) extends from the duodenum to the ileum.
– It has a slightly thicker wall, larger lumen and more
internal folds than the ileum.
• The ileum
– (2m long) makes up the remaining part of the small
intestine.
– The terminal portion of the ileum empties into the
medial side of the cecum through the ileocecal valve.
– The walls of the ileum have an abundance of lymphatic
tissue aggregated into nodules called mesenteric
(payer’s) patches
• Large Intestine
– The large intestine (about 1.5m long) begins at the
terminal end of the ileum and terminates at the anus
– The large intestine has little or no digestive functions.
– It functions
• to absorb water and electrolytes from the
remaining chyme and
• forms, stores, and
• expels feces from the body.
• The large intestine is structurally divided into
– the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal.
• The cecum
– The first and widest part of large intestine, lies in the
right lower quadrant of abdomen
– is the dilated pouch that hangs inferiorly slightly below
the ileocecal valve.
– The ileocecal valve is a fold of mucus membrane at the
junction of the small and large intestine that prohibits
the back flow of chyme.
Appendix (9cm): is hollow finger like muscular pouch attached to the
inferior medial margin of the cecum.
– It has an abundance of lymphatic tissue which serves to resist
infection.
• The colon
– consists of ascending, transverse, descending, and
sigmoid portions.
• ascending colon :
– extends superiorly from the cecum along the right
abdominal wall to the inferior surface of the liver.
– bends sharply to the left at the hepatic flexure (right
colic flexure)
• transverse colon:
– transversely crosses the upper abdominal cavity.
– bends at a right angle called the splenic flexure (or left
colic flexure).
– marks the beginning of the descending colon.
• Descending colon:
– passes inferiorly along the left abdominal wall to the
pelvic region
– it bends medially from the pelvic brim to form an S-
shaped curve called the sigmoid colon.
• Rectum :
– About 20cm portion of the GIT, connects sigmoid colon
to anal canal
• anal canal:
– the last 2 to 3 cm.
– It’s external opening is called anus.
• Two sphincter muscles guard the anal opening:
– the internal anal
– external anal sphincter
 Accessory digestive glands
– These organs aid in the chemical break down of
food.
– These are
• the liver
• gallbladder, and
• pancreas.
– The liver and pancreas function as exocrine
glands in this process because their secretions
are transported to the lumen of the GIT via ducts.
• Liver
– is the largest internal organ of the body
– weighing about 2kg. (2%) in an adult.
– It is reddish-brown in color because of its great
vascularity.
– The liver has two major lobes
• The right lobe, large anatomically
• The left lobe
– is separated from each other by the falciform ligament.
– two minor lobes on visceral (lower) surface of liver.
• The caudate lobe is near the inferior vena cava and
• the quadrate lobe is adjacent to the gallbladder.
The porta Hepatis (of liver)
– horizontally placed slit likepassage over visceral surface
of liver.
– is where the hepatic artery, portal vein, lymphatic, and
nerves enter the liver and where the hepatic ducts exit.
• The liver carries out numerous functions (more
500):
– synthesis, storage, and release of vitamins;
– synthesis, storage, and release of glycogen;
– synthesis of blood proteins;
– phagocytosis of old red blood cells and certain bacteria;
– removal of toxic substances; and
– production of bile.
• Gall bladder
– is a sack like organ attached to the inferior surface of the
liver.
– It stores and concentrates bile, which drains to it from
the liver by way of the bile ducts, hepatic duct, and cystic
duct, respectively.
– Bile is a yellowish-green fluid containing
– bile salts bilirubin (a product resulting from a
breakdown of blood), cholesterol and other compounds.
– Bile is continuously produced by the liver and drains
through the hepatic and common bile ducts to the
duodenum for the emulsification and absorption of fats.
– When the small intestine is empty of food, the sphincter
of ampulla (Oddi) constricts and bile is forced up the
cystic duct to the gallbladder for storage.
• Pancreas
– The pancreas (12.5cm long and 2.5cm thick)
– is a soft, lobulated, glandular organ that extends from
duodenum on right to medial aspect of spleen on left.
– has both exocrine and endocrine function.
– The endocrine function is performed by clusters of cells
called the pancreatic islets (islets of langerhans) that
secrete the hormones insulin and glucagons into the
blood.
– as an exocrine gland, also secretes pancreatic juice
through the pancreatic duct into the duodenum.
– It is positioned along the posterior abdominal wall,
adjacent to the greater curvature of the stomach.
– It has an expanded head near the duodenum, a centrally
located body, and a tapering tail near the spleen.