Chapter One

Introduction to Fundamentals of Networking

Contents
 What is computer networks and Internet?
 History & overview of Networks
 Network Architecture Characteristics
 Computer Networks Versus Human Network
 Communications basics (characteristics, components, data flow...)
 The platform for communication (Communicating the Message)
 Data transmission and Transmission Impairments
What is Computer Networking?
• A computer network is a system that connects two or more computing devices for
transmitting and sharing information.
• Computing devices include everything from a mobile phone to a server. These devices are
connected using physical wires such as fiber optics, but they can also be wireless.
• You build a computer network using hardware (e.g., Nodes, routers, switches, access points,
and cables and software (e.g., operating systems or business applications).
What is Computer Networking?

• A computer network is a collection of computers capable of transmitting, receiving, and

exchanging voice, data, and video traffic.
• A network can also include subnetworks, or smaller subdivisions of the network.
• Subnet-working is how very large networks, such as those provided by ISPs, are able to
manage thousands of IP addresses and connected devices.

• Think of the Internet as a network of networks: computers are connected to each other within
networks, and these networks connect to other networks.
• This enables these computers to connect with other computers both near and far.

• A network is a group of connected communicating devices such as computers and

printers.
• Internet---A network of networks is called an Internetwork
 History of Computer Networks

Circuit Switching

1878

• The world's current population is around 7.6 billion people, and the number of devices connected to the internet is estimated
to be over 50 billion, implying that each person uses approximately 6 internet-connected devices.
• The telephone network transmits data from a sender to a receiver using circuit switching, which is a suitable
choice given that voice is transferred at a consistent pace between sender and receiver. (1878)
• A computer network is a collection of computers capable of transmitting, receiving, and exchanging voice,
data, and video traffic.
• In 1969, the first packet-switched computer network and a direct ancestor of today's public internet ARPANET
was first used.
• The first communication between UCLA and SRI took place on October 29, 1969.
• In 1976 the first true IP router was developed by Ginny Strazisar.
• In 1981 IPv4 was introduced, while IPv6 was in 1996.
• In 1983 DNS was introduced by Paul Mockapetris.
• The World Wide Web, which is a seamless network of various networks, was introduced in the 1980s by Tim
 History of Computer Networks
The whole Timeline of Computer Networks
• In 1957, Advanced Research Project Agency was formed by the US.
• In 1961, the idea of ARPANET was proposed by Leonard Klein rock.
• In 1965, the term packet was used by Donald Davies.
• In 1969, ARPANET became functional, and the internet was officially born, with the first data transmission sent
between UCLA and SRI on October 29, 1969, at 10:30 p.m.
• In 1971, Ray Tomlinson sent the first email, and the foundation for Wi-Fi was laid.
• In 1973, Robert Metcalfe developed Ethernet at Xerox PARC, and the first experimental VoIP call was made.
• In 1976, the first true IP router was developed by Ginny Strazisar.
• In 1978, Bob Kahn invented the TCP/IP protocol for networks developed.
• In 1981, Internet Protocol version 4, or IPv4, was officially defined in RFC 791 in 1981.
• In 1983, DNS was introduced by Paul Mockapetris.
• In 1988, details about network firewall technology were first published 1988.
• In 1996, IPv6 was introduced.
• In 1997, the first version of the 802.11 standards for Wi-Fi was introduced in June 1997, providing transmission
speeds up to 2 Mbps.
• In 2002-2004, Web 2.0 was introduced.
History of Computer Networks
• What is Circuit Switching?
• Circuit switching was designed in 1878 to send telephone calls down a dedicated channel.
• It is a method that is used when a dedicated channel or circuit needs to be established.
• The telephone network transmits data from a sender to a receiver using circuit switching.
• Circuit switching reserves the whole transmission chain from end to end during the transmission.
• The main disadvantages of Circuit switching include; The link will remain active even when the two
devices aren't sharing data, leading to swathes of memory waste.
• It's much slower than Packet switching since time is taken to attach two hosts before data
exchange.
What is Packet Switching? In 1960’s
• Packet switching is the transfer of small pieces of data across various networks.
• Varies packets can be sent simultaneously by the principle of sequence numbers.
• No need of dedicated channels here
• Packet switching, a technique that breaks data into small units called packets, and sends them over
different paths to the destination.
Circuit vs packet switching
• Within a network, packet switching break streams of data into smaller blocks of data.
• Each of these small blocks are then sent independently over a shared network.

• Circuit switching can guarantee quality through dedicated bandwidth, but most of this
bandwidth is wasted on “dead air.”
History of Computer Networks
ARPPANET
• The ARPANET project was launched in 1969 by the US Department of Defense's Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA).
• The goal was to create a network of computers that could communicate with each other
across different locations and platforms, and that could withstand a nuclear attack.
• The ARPANET was the first network to use packet switching, a technique that breaks data
into small units called packets, and sends them over different paths to the destination.
• This enabled more efficient and reliable data transmission than the previous circuit switching
method, which required a dedicated connection between two points.
• ARPPANET uses Network Control Protocol (NCP) for establishing and maintaining
connections between hosts, and for handling errors and flow control.
• However, NCP had some limitations, such as the lack of support for multiple networks,
addressing schemes, and security features.
• Moreover, NCP was not compatible with other networks that were emerging at the time,
such as the packet radio network (PRNET) and the satellite network (SATNET), which had
different characteristics and requirements.
History of Computer Networks
The challenges of Interoperability in ARPPANET
• The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was the first large-scale packet-
switching network, which means it transmitted data in small units called packets, rather than in
continuous streams.
• The ARPANET connected several universities and research centers across the US, and was
designed to support military and scientific applications.
• One of the main challenges faced by the ARPANET was how to make different types of
computers and networks communicate with each other.
• Different systems used different protocols, or rules for data exchange, which were often
incompatible.
• For example, some systems used 8-bit bytes, while others used 36-bit words.
• Some systems used variable-length packets, while others used fixed-length packets.
• To solve this problem, the ARPANET developed a set of standard protocols called the Network
Control Program (NCP), which defined how packets were formatted, addressed, routed, and
acknowledged.
 History of Computer Networks
TCP/IP development
• However, the NCP was not flexible enough to accommodate the growing diversity and complexity of networks.
• The TCP/IP model is a set of protocols that defines how data is transmitted and routed over the internet.
• In 1973, two researchers, Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn, proposed a new protocol that would overcome the
shortcomings of NCP, and that would enable interconnection and interoperability between different networks.
• They called it the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), and it was designed to provide end-to-end reliability, error
recovery, and congestion control.
• TCP also introduced the concept of IP addresses, which are unique identifiers for each host on the network.
• TCP was later split into two separate protocols: TCP/IP
• The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which ensured the reliable delivery and reassembly of packets at the
destination and the Internet Protocol (IP), which handled the routing and addressing of packets across networks.
• Together, they form the TCP/IP protocol suite, which is the basis of the internet.

• The TCP/IP protocol suite also facilitated the development of protocols and applications that run on top of it.
• Domain Name System (DNS), the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
developed after this time.

• The TCP/IP protocol suite has proven to be scalable, adaptable, and robust, and it has remained the standard for
internet communication ever since.
 History of Computer Networks
TCP/IP development
• The TCP/IP protocol suite was tested and refined throughout the 1970s and 1980s, with the
help of several experimental networks, such as the Packet Radio Network (PRNET), the Satellite
Network (SATNET), and the Local Area Network (LAN).
• In 1983, the ARPANET officially switched from NCP to TCP/IP, marking the start of the modern
internet.
• TCP/IP also became the standard protocol for other networks, such as the National Science
Foundation Network (NSFNET), which connected academic and research institutions, and the
Commercial Internet Exchange (CIX), which connected commercial service providers.
• TCP/IP enabled the interconnection of diverse and independent networks, creating a global
network of networks.
• The TCP/IP protocol suite has evolved over time to meet the changing needs and challenges of
the internet.
 History of Computer Networks
The significance of TCP/IP
• The TCP/IP protocol suite is one of the most influential and successful inventions in the history
of computing and communication.

• It has enabled the creation and expansion of the internet, which has transformed every aspect
of human society, from education and entertainment to business and politics.

• It has also fostered innovation and collaboration among researchers, developers, and users,
who have contributed to the improvement and diversification of the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• The TCP/IP model is not only a technical achievement, but also a cultural and social
phenomenon.
 History of Computer Networks
• The World Wide Web was created in 1990 to work on top of TCP/IP model.
• The WWW uses the HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) to transmit data and the HTML
(Hypertext Markup Language) to structure and format documents.
• Web pages can contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia content, and can be
accessed using web browsers, such as Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Internet Explorer.
• Commercial Internet services such as Wi-Fi services to enterprises, companies began In the late
1990’s and 2000.
• The concept of an Internet Service Provider (ISP) was also introduced.
• An ISP's primary goal is to provide its clients with a reliable internet connection at a reasonable
cost.
• For the expansions of protocols, commercial Internet, and others ISPs were established and
start to give services for customers.
• ISP (internet service provider) is a company that provides individuals and organizations access
to the internet and other related services.
• ISPs make it possible for customers to access the internet while also providing additional
services such as email, domain registration and web hosting.
Network Architecture Characteristics
What is Network Architecture?
• Network Architecture is the way network services and devices are structured together to serve the
connectivity needs of client devices and applications.
• The network has become a platform for distributing a wide range of services to end users in a reliable,
efficient, and secure manner. It must have design approaches to achieve that.
• What are the types of Network Architecture?
• It consists of three layers: Hierarchical design approach
• Access layer

• Distribution layer

• Core (or backbone) layer

• For different branches and locations, access networks are built to bring users
onboard.
• Wide-area networks (WANs) connect users to apps, over short or long distances.
 Access Layer Functionality
• Access – controls user and workgroup access to the resources on the network.
• This layer usually incorporates Layer 2 switches and access points that provide connectivity
between workstations and servers.
• We can manage access control and policy, create separate collision domains, and
implement port security at this layer.
• To grant user access to network resources=>Feeds traffic into the network.
• Performs network entry control =>Access layer devices control traffic by localizing
service requests to the access media.
• Provides other edge services => Access Layer Security
• In the campus environment, the access layer typically incorporates switched LAN devices
with ports that provide connectivity for workstations and servers.

• Access layer devices interconnect the high speed LAN links to the wide area links carrying
traffic into the distribution layer.

• Access layer devices are the visible part of the network; this is what your customers
 Distribution Layer Functionality
• Distribution – serves as the communication point between the access layer and the
core. Its primary functions are to provide routing, filtering, and WAN access and to
determine how packets can access the core.
• This layer usually consists of routers and multilayer switches.
• The distribution layer can provide
 Aggregation of LAN or WAN links.
 Policy-based security in the form of access control lists (ACLs) and filtering.
 Routing services between LANs and VLANs and between routing domains (e.g., EIGRP to OSPF).
 Redundancy and load balancing.
 A boundary for route aggregation and summarization configured on interfaces toward the core
layer.
 The device acts as the demarcation point between broadcast domains.
 Controlling the routing table size
• Use the following two main strategies in the distribution layer to accomplish these goals:
· Route summarization
· Minimizing core to distribution layer connections
 Core Layer Functionality
• The core layer is also referred to as the network backbone.
• The core layer consists of high-speed network devices such as layer 3 switches
and routers.
• responsible for transporting large amounts of traffic quickly.
• The core layer provides interconnectivity between distribution layer devices it
usually consists of high speed devices, like high end routers and switches with
redundant links.
Major functionalities
 Providing high-speed switching (i.e., fast transport)
 Providing reliability and fault tolerance
 Scaling by using faster, and not more, equipment
 redundancy
Network Architecture Characteristics
What are four basic Network Architectures?
The four basic features of Network Architectures are as follows:
1. Fault Tolerance- A fault-tolerant network is one that limits the number of devices that are
impacted by faults, as the Internet will fail at times.
• It’s built to recover quickly and utilize multiple paths between the source and destination, so if one
faults, another steps in.
2. Scalability- A scalable network can expand quickly to support its new clients and applications
without impacting the performance of the service being delivered to already existing users.
3. Quality of Service (QoS)- The quality of service is a requirement of networks in the modern multi-
cloud era.
• Services need to be reliable, measurable, and at times, guaranteed without fear of compromised
quality, which includes the controls to manage congested network traffic and network bandwidth.
4. Security- A high-level of security is a non-negotiable for an impactful network architecture as it
serves as one of the fundamentals.
• Security is addressed in the network infrastructure and in information security, which means
physically securing a network is necessary and the information being transmitted, stored, and
utilized in cloud-native environments.
Computer Networks Versus Human Network
What is Human Networking?
• Human networking refers to the process of building and maintaining relationships with people in
a face-to-face setting.
• This can be done through social events, clubs, professional organizations, and personal
connections.
• In human networking, interactions between people are based on personal, face-to-face
conversations, body language, and other nonverbal signs.

What is Computer Networking?

• Computer networking refers to the process of building and maintaining relationships with others
through digital means, such as social media platforms, online forums, instant messaging apps, and
email.
• In Computer networking, interactions between people are based on written messages, digital
media, and other online communication tools.
Basics of Data Communications
• Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable or wireless.
• The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties
creating and using the data.
• Information is defined as the knowledge or intelligence.

• When we communicate we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote.
• Local communication usually occurs face to face and remote communication means communicating
from distance.
• For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication
system made up of a combination of hardware and software.

• The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:

delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
Characteristics of Data Communications
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.

2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In
the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the
same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called
real-time transmission.

4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery
of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If
some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in
the video is the result.
The platform for communication

A data communications system has five components:

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media, includes twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices.
The Communication Model
The Communication Model

• Source: This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are

telephones and personal computers.
• A transmitter transforms and encodes the information

• Transmission system: This can be a single transmission line or a complex network

connecting source and destination.

• Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and
converts it into a form that can be handled by the destination device. For
example, a modem will accept an analog signal coming from a network or
transmission line and convert it into a digital bit stream.

• Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver.

Communication Tasks
• Communication Tasks during the fundamental communication model
Communication Tasks
• Transmission system utilization-- the need to make efficient use of transmission facilities that are typically shared among a
number of communicating devices.
• Error control and detection: Detecting or identifying and re-transmitting data frames that might be lost or corrupted during
transmission. L2, L4
• Recovery is a concept distinct from that of error correction.
• Addressing and routing: identify a packet's source and destination host computer and forwarding IP packets
• Message formatting : agreement between two parties as to the form of the data to be exchanged or transmitted, such as
the binary code for characters.
• Security: The sender of data may wish to be assured that only the intended receiver actually receives the data. And the
receiver of data may wish to be assured that the received data have not been altered in transit and that the data actually
come from the purported sender.
• Encryption: provide data security. L5
• Network management: capabilities are needed to configure the system, monitor its status, react to failures and overloads,
and plan intelligently for future growth.
• Flow control: the process of managing the rate of data transmission b/n two nodes to prevent a fast sender from
overwhelming a slow receiver. L2 and L4
• Multiplexing: combining several higher layer sessions. LLC
• Service-port-addressing: transmit the message to the correct process.L4

• When too many packets flow through a network, packet delays or packet losses can occur, both of which degrade the
network's performance. This situation is known as congestion.
Types of Data Representation

Data Representation types include the following:

Text
• In data communication, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits
(0s or 1s).
• Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols.
• Each set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called
coding.
• Today, the prevalent coding systems are Unicode, and American Standard
Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
Numbers
• Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.
• However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent numbers; the number is
directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations.
Types of Data Representation
Images
• Images are also represented by bit patterns.
• In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small
dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution.
• For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels.
• In the second case, there is a better representation of the image (better resolution), but more memory is
needed to store the image.
• After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and the value of the pattern
depend on the image.
• For an image made of only black-and-white dots (e.g., a chessboard), a 1-bit pattern is enough to represent a
pixel.
Audio
• Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature different from text,
numbers, or images.
• Even when we use a microphone to change voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.
Video
• Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie.
• Video can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of
images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.
Direction of data flow/Transmission Modes

Simplex

Half Duplex

Full Duplex
Data flow
In simplex mode(SX), the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one
of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Commercial radio &
television broadcasting are examples. Simplex lines are also called receive-only, transmit-only
or one-way-only lines.

In half-duplex(HDX) mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex
mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction. Email and
Citizens band (CB) radio are examples where push to talk (PTT) is to be pressed or depressed
while sending and transmitting.

In full-duplex mode(FDX) (called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. Two common examples of full-duplex communications are VoIP and
telephone network. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is
required all the time. The capacity of the channel must be divided between the two
directions.
Data Transmission
What is Data Transmission
• Data transmission refers to the process of sending and receiving information between two or
more devices connected to a network.
• It is a critical aspect of modern-day networking, and it enables devices to communicate with each
other over long distances.
• There are several ways in which data can be transmitted over a network, including broadcast,
unicast, and multicast.
Broadcast
• Broadcast transmission is a network communication technique in which data packets are sent to
all devices on the network.
• In this method, the sender sends a single message, which is then received and processed by every
device on the network.
• This method is often used for sending important notifications or messages that need to be
received by every device on the network.
• For example, when a device joins or leaves a network, the network administrator may send a
broadcast message to inform all devices on the network of the change.
Data Transmission
Unicast
• Unicast transmission is a network communication technique in which data packets are sent
from one device to a specific destination device.
• The sender sends a message to a single recipient, and the message is only received and
processed by the intended recipient.
• It is often used for sending private or confidential messages between devices on a network.
• For example, when a user sends an email to another user on the same network, the email is
sent using unicast transmission.
Multicast
• Multicast transmission is a network communication technique in which data packets are sent
from one device to a group of devices on the network.
• The sender sends a message to a multicast group, and the message is received and
processed by all devices that are members of the group.
• It is often used for sending messages to a specific group of users or devices on a network. For
example, when a user wants to send a message to all devices on a specific network segment,
multicast transmission can be used.
The END of Chap 1