Heating, Ventilation & Air-Conditioning

(HVAC)
(ME-326)
Spring Semester- 2024
DE-43 (Mech)

Topic 1 - Introduction

Instructor: Dr. Usama Bin Perwez

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 1

 Course Introduction
Recommended Books:
 Refrigeration & Air-Conditioning by Wilbert F. Stoecker / Jerold W.
Jones

 Air Conditioning Principles and Systems by Edward G. Pita

Reference Literature
 Modern Refrigeration & Air-Conditioning by Althouse, Turnquist,
and Bracciano

 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Technology by William C.

Whitman, William M. Johnson, John A. Tomczyk, Eugene Silberstein

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 2

 Course Contents
Description Week Chapter
Introduction to fundamental concepts of thermodynamics
1 1-2 1+2
and refrigeration

10 + 11 + 3
2 Vapor compression and air, refrigeration cycles 3-6
extra book

17 + 12 + 7
3 Absorption refrigeration systems 7-8
extra book

15 + 4
4 Refrigerants 9
extra book

1+7+3
5 Air conditioning systems and psychometric analysis 10-12
extra book

6 Heating and cooling load calculations 13-14 4

7 Introduction to different types of compressors 15 11

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

 Course Introduction
Grading Policy

1. Quizzes (6) 8%

2. Mids 30 % Subject to Change

4. Assignments (3) 2%

5. Project 10 %

6. Final Exam 50 %

Total 100 %

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 4

 Lecture Outline

 Introduction to Heating, Ventilation & Air-

Conditioning (HVAC)

 Refrigeration

 Brief review of fundamentals

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

 Introduction to (HVAC)

 Treatment of air so as to simultaneously control its temperature, moisture

content, cleanliness, odor and circulation, as required by the occupants, a
process, or products in the space .

 Process that heats, cools, cleans, circulates air and controls its moisture
content on a continuous basis.

oTemperature: Air temperature is controlled by heating or cooling of the air

o Humidity:
Air humidity, the water vapor content of the air, is controlled by adding or
removing water vapor from the air (Humidification or Dehumidification)

o Cleanliness: Air cleanliness, or air quality, is controlled by either filtration, or by

ventilation → introduction of outside air into the space which dilutes the concentration
of contaminants
o Motion: Air motion refers to air velocity and to where the air is distributed. It is
controlled by appropriate air distributing equipment

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 6

 Introduction to (HVAC)
Human Comfort
Comfort Standards

 Recommended indoor air conditions for comfort, published in ASHRAE

Standard 55-1992

“ASHRAE" stands for “AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING,

REFRIGERATING AND AIR-CONDITIONING ENGINEERS”

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 7

 Introduction to (HVAC)
Human Comfort

 Shaded regions are called the Comfort

Zones
 Figure shows the regions of Air
Temperature and Relative Humidity where
at least 80% of the occupants will find the
environment comfortable
 Comfort Zones apply only to sedentary or
slightly active persons
 Comfort Zones apply only to:
o Summer Clothing of light slacks and
a short sleeve shirt, or equivalent
o Winter Clothing of heavy slacks, long
sleeve shirt, and sweater or jacket, or 16o C 21oC 27o C 32oC
equivalent

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 8

 Introduction to (HVAC)

ASHRAE Standard 62-1999, “Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality”

 Introduction to (HVAC)
Air Conditioning Refrigeration

Industrial,
Heating, Cooling and refrigeration
humidifying dehumidifying including chemical
and control of operation in air and process
air quality conditioning industries, food
preservation

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 10

 Introduction to (HVAC)

Fundamentals

Heating/Cooling Space Refrigeration System

• Psychometry • Different Types
• Heating/Cooling Load • Refrigerants
Calculations

Transmission and Distribution

• Piping and Ducting
• Air Distribution
 Refrigeration

• Process of achieving and maintaining a temperature below

that of the surroundings by the continuous extraction of heat
from a body whose temperature is already below the
temperature of the surrounding.
• Flow direction of Heat - From low temperature to high
temperature
• Cooling can be done in two ways
• Heat Sinking (Passive) – no input of energy
• Refrigeration (Active) – input of energy

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 12

 Units of Refrigeration

Ton of Refrigeration (TR)

Heat extraction capacity of refrigeration and air conditioning
equipment.
The rate of heat removal required to freeze a metric ton ( 1000 kg)
of water at 0 ℃ in 24 hours.

13
 Refrigeration

Freezer
Ice Maker

Split Air
Conditioner
Refrigerator

Window Air
Conditioner

Car automobiles
Large chilling stations

14
15
 Refrigeration – A Historical Background
Pre-Historical Era

 Why Refrigeration? - Survival

 Preservation of food

 Storage in caves

 Placing food in streams of cooled water

 Natural cooling methods

 Evaporative Cooling

 Through vases of porous earthen pottery

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 16

 Refrigeration – A Historical Perspective
Modern Era

 1910: Mechanical Domestic Refrigeration first appeared

 1927: Automatic Refrigeration Units, for comfort cooling as a part of air-
conditioning appeared

 1928: First of the Sealed Automatic Refrigeration units were introduced by

General Electric

 From late 1930’s, Air-conditioning of automobiles also grown rapidly

 Starting in the 1960s, Home Air Conditioning Market experienced tremendous

growth

 By 1990, the Automobile Air-conditioner became standard

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 17

 Refrigeration - Applications

Ice Making
Application of Refrigeration

Preservation and Cold Store, Refrigerated

transportation of Transport, Domestic
perishables refrigerators and Freezers

Chemicals manufacturing,
Special Industrial Petroleum Refineries,
Processes paper and pulp industries
etc.

Air Conditioning

Cryogenics

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 18

 Brief review of fundamentals
o Laws of thermodynamics
o Thermodynamic system and processes
o Properties of a System
o Intensive and Extensive Properties
o Properties of a pure substance
o Change of phases
o Sensible and Latent Heat
o Pressure dependence of Boiling point
o Saturation Temperature
o State, process and cycle
o Energy , Work and Heat

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 19

 Brief review of fundamentals
o Heat
o Modes of Heat Transfer
o Conduction
o Convection
o Radiation
o Refrigerant
o Refrigerant effect and units
o Refrigeration process
o Mechanical Refrigerator

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 20

 Laws of thermodynamics
Zeroth Law
The "zeroth law" states that if two systems are at the same
time in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are
in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Thermal equilibrium: Heat transfer is zero, bodies have same

temperature
First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics is the application of
the conservation of energy principle to heat and thermodynamic
processes.
Any thermodynamic system in an equilibrium state possesses a
state variable called the internal energy (E). Between any two
equilibrium states, the change in internal energy is equal to the
difference of heat transfer into the system and work done by the
system
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics is a general principle
which places constraints upon the attainable efficiencies
of thermodynamic processes and the direction of heat
transfer.
Kelvin-Planck: It is impossible to extract an amount of heat
QH from a hot reservoir and use it all to do work W. Some
amount of heat QC must be exhausted to a cold reservoir.
This precludes a perfect heat engine.
Clausius: It is not possible for heat to flow from a colder
body to a warmer body without any work having been done
to accomplish this flow. Energy will not flow spontaneously
from a low temperature object to a higher temperature
object. This precludes a perfect refrigerator. The statements
about refrigerators apply to air conditioners and heat
pumps, which embody the same principles.
 Heat Engine Refrigerator Heat Pump
T2 T2>Tatm T2 T2=Tatm T2
T2=Tatm
Q2 Q2 Q2
WE
E R WR P
WP

Q1 Q1 Q1

T1 T1=Tatm T1 T1<Tatm T1 T1>Tatm

WE Q2 Q1 WR Q2 Q1 WP Q2 Q1

output Desired .Effect
Efficiency  COP  [Link]
Input PF 
Work .Input Work .Input
WE Q2  Q1 Q1 Q1
E   COP   P.F 
Q2

Q12
Q2 Q2 WR Q2  Q1 WP Q2  Q1
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 25
 Thermodynamic System

Thermodynamics is a branch of physics concerned with heat

and temperature and their relation to energy and work

o System
o a quantity of matter or a region in
space chosen for study
o Surroundings
o The mass or region outside the system
o Boundary
o The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its
surroundings
 Thermodynamic System
Types of System

o Open system
o Both energy and mass transfer
o Closed system
o Energy transfer but no mass transfer
o Isolated system
o Both energy and mass transfer not possible
o Adiabatic system
o Mass and work transfer possible but no heat transfer
 Thermodynamic Processes

o Adiabatic – no heat transferred

o Isothermal – constant temperature
o Isobaric – constant pressure
o Isochoric – constant volume
o Isentropic – constant entropy
o Throttling – constant enthalpy
 Properties of a System
o A property is any characteristic of matter that can be evaluated
quantitatively and defines the state of the system
o Properties can be categorized as
o Intensive properties
o Pressure, Temperature, Density
o Extensive properties
o Mass, Volume, Enthalpy, Entropy
o For a single substance, any two intensive properties can define/fix
the state of the system
o Other properties can be determined from the defined state, since
properties are not all independently variable
 Intensive Properties
Specific Volume

o Volume occupied by a unit mass of a substance in a

system, having units (
o Mathematically,
,
where, is total Volume (Extensive property)
is mass of the substance
o It is reciprocal of density
 Intensive Properties
Specific Heat

o Quantity of energy required to raise the temperature of

a unit mass by 1 K
o Depends on how the process is carried out
o Constant pressure,
o Constant volume,
o Specific heat at constant pressure is more useful in air
conditioning and refrigeration
 Extensive Properties

Enthalpy

o Measure of the heat content of a substance

o Heat change in system for a constant pressure process
involving no work
o radiators, evaporators, and condensers
o It can be used for describing heat transfer for both
latent and sensible heat processes.
o Specific enthalpy is enthalpy per unit mass,
 Extensive Properties

Entropy

o Can be viewed as measure of disorder or molecular

randomness, denoted by s

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 33

 Properties of a Pure Substance
o Phases
o Quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in both
chemical composition and physical structure
o Liquid and Vapor phases
o Equilibrium in Phases
o Vapor Pressure
o Change of phases
o Boiling Point
o Temperature at which vapor
pressure of liquid is equal to
the atmospheric pressure
 Properties of a Pure Substance

Sensible Heat

 Heat which causes a change in temperature of a substance, either

o By adding heat temp is raised OR
o By removing heat temp is lowered

Latent (Hidden) Heat

 Heat which brings about a change in phase with no change in temperature

o Solids become liquids, liquids become gas

o changes of state occur at the same temperature and pressure
combinations for any given substance

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 36

 Properties of a Pure Substance

Latent (Hidden) Heat—contd--

DE → 2257 kJ/kg Water → Steam Latent Heat of Vaporization

ED → 2257 kJ/kg Steam → Water Latent Heat of Condensation

BC → 335 kJ/kg

Ice → Water

Latent Heat of Fusion D E

CB → 335 kJ/kg
B C
Water → Ice
A
Latent Heat of
Solidification

 Two latent heats for each substance, solid to liquid (Melting and Freezing)
and liquid to gaseous (Vaporizing and condensing)
 Properties of a Pure Substance

Application / Significance of Latent Heat of Evaporation

 When a substance passes from a liquid to a vapor its ability to absorb heat is
very high

 It takes five times as much energy (heat) to boil water than it takes to warm it up
from 0 to 100 oC, (i.e. 418 kJ/kg vs 2257 kJ/kg)

 Having sweat evaporate off our skin is so helpful in keeping us cool

Absorption of heat by changing a liquid to a vapor, and

discharge of that heat by condensing the vapor is the
keystone to the whole Mechanical Refrigeration Process

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 38

 Properties of a Pure Substance
Boiling Point and its dependence on Atmospheric Pressure

 Temperature at which a
liquid boils is not constant,
but varies with the
atmospheric pressure
 Properties of a Pure Substance
Boiling Point and its dependence on Atmospheric Pressure

 When the pressure in the jar reaches the

pressure that corresponds to the boiling
point of water at 70°F (21 oC), the water will
start to boil and vaporize.

Boiling Point of water can be changed and controlled by controlling the

⇒ atmospheric pressure above the water

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 40

 Properties of a Pure Substance
Utilization of Pressure dependence of boiling point
 By lowering the pressure in a jar to 0.122 psia will cause the water to boil at 5 C
o

 By circulating this water boiling at 5 C through a cooling coil and passing the
o

room air over it, the water would absorb heat from room air

As air is giving up heat to the coil, the

air leaving the coil is cold

5oC
Water used in this way is called a
Refrigerant
24oC 13oC
Refrigerant is a substance that
can be changed readily to a vapor
by boiling it and then changed to a
liquid by condensing it
 State, Process and Cycle
o State
o When all the properties of system have a definite value, then the
system is in a definite state. Whenever there is change in anyone of
the property, then the system is said to have a change of state.
o Process
o When the path connecting the change of states of the system is
specified, then this path is called Process. Example: constant
pressure process, constant volume process etc.
o Cycle
o When a system goes through different change of states and return
backs to the original state, i.e., all the properties are identical to the
original state, then the system is said have gone through a
thermodynamic cycle.
 Internal Energy, Work and Heat

o Internal Energy
o The sum of the microscopic energies of the system
o Mechanical Work
o Amount of energy transferred by a force
o Heat
o Form of energy that is transferred due to difference in
temperature between two objects
o Their inter-relationship is given by First Law of
thermodynamics as
 Modes of Heat Transfer
o Conduction (Via Direct Contact)
o Direct flow of heat through a
material resulting from
physical contact
o Convection (Via fluid)
o Heat transfer between a
surface and adjacent fluid,
and by the flow of fluid from
one place to another,
induced by temperature

o Radiation(Via EM Radiation)
o No transfer medium required as heat is transferred through
space by EM waves
 Refrigerant

 Working substance used in a refrigeration system to produce cooling effect

Refrigeration Effect

 The quantity of heat which unit mass of refrigerant absorbs from the
refrigeration space is known as the refrigeration effect

Units of refrigeration capacity

 Rate at which heat is removed from the refrigeration space.

o rated in kJ/s, or kilowatt (kW)

o Btu/hr
o tons of refrigeration (TR)
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 45
 Units of refrigeration capacity

Tons of Refrigeration

 Refrigerating System having a capacity of one ton is the one that has a
cooling capacity equivalent to the melting of one ton of ice in 24 hours.

 If 288,000 Btu are required to make one ton of ice

288000Btu / 24 hr = 12000 BTU/hr, to make 1 ton of ice in one day.
o 1 ton refrigeration = 200 Btu/min = 3.517 kJ/s = 3.517 kW = 4.713 HP

46
 Refrigeration Process

 Heat that leaks into the refrigerator from any

source must be removed by the refrigerator’s
Heat-Pumping Mechanism

 Heat has to be pumped from the cool, 2°C

interior of the refrigerator to the warmer,
22°C air in the room

 Power is required for pumping heat up the

temperature scale from a 2°C box temperature
to a 22°C room temperature

 Refrigeration concepts utilized in the Residential

Air Conditioner are the same as those in the
Household Refrigerator
o Heat leaks into the House just as heat leaks into the
Refrigerated Compartments in the refrigerator

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 47

 Mechanical Refrigerator

Evaporator

Condenser

Cabinet

1.5oC, 2bar
Referigerant
Control
Compressor
Room Temp. Refrigerator
(22 oC) Temp (2 oC)

Liquid
Insulation Refrigerant
Receiver
(E.g R-12)

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 48

 Chilling stations

2. Cooling Water Circuit

1. Refrigeration Circuit
4. Water is used to
drive an additional
secondary closed
3. Chilled Water Circuit circuit to cool air

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 49