RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Computer Aided Design(CAD)

CHAPTER:1 FUNDAMENTALS OF CAD

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 OBJECTIVES

Identify CAD hardware and software

Identify all AutoCAD window screen elements
Display the drawings using panning and zooming
Create drawings using absolute and relative
coordinate values
Save and open CAD files
Organize drawings with layers and properties
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1.1 Introduction to CAD

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 What is CAD?

CAD is a short form for word Computer Aided Design.

CAD involves any type of design activity which makes use
of the computer to develop, analyze or modify an engineering
design.
CAD program/software is an electronic tool that enables
you to make quick and accurate drawings with the use of a
computer.
Computer drawings are neat, clean, highly presentable, and
can be modified easily.
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 What is CAD?
With CAD:
 parts or components can be modeled, visualized,
revised, and improve on the computer screen before
any engineering drawings have been created
 Parts that have been modeled can be assembled in the
virtual environment of the computer.
 The part model can be downloaded to a rapid
prototyping system that can create a physical model of
the part in a few hours with virtually no human
intervention.

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 Advantages of CAD
1. Faster rate of producing drawings: - using a CAD systems can
produce drawings about 3 times as fast as could be done on a drawing
board. This speeds up the whole design process and gets the products
onto the market more quickly.
2. Greater accuracy of drawings: - highly accurate drawings can be
prepared by CAD because it has facilities of maintaining thickness of
line, locations, use of various drawing conventions etc. enable to see
component in more details by zooming.
3. Neat and clear drawing:-conventional drawing depends on the skill
of individual draftsman, whereas the plotter of a CAD system
produces superior line work and text, whoever operates the system.
4. No repetitions of drawings: - once a drawing or part drawing is
completed, it may be stored in the computer memory for03/05/2024
future use.
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 Capabilities of CAD
Some of the important capabilities of using CAD are:
 Presentations:
 You can create fine drawings with presentation symbols and
text styles.
 You can use CAD program to make on screen presentations.
 Flexibility in editing
 CAD provides the flexibility to make quick alterations to
drawings
 Some of the editing capabilities are such as; move or copy
drawing elements, enlarge or reduce size of a drawing, make
multiple copies of a drawing, change units of measure and
etc. 03/05/2024 7
 Capabilities of CAD
 Units and accuracy level
 CAD program allows you to work with great accuracy.
 You can also work with different units of measure, such as
architectural units, engineering units, scientific units and surveyor
units.
 Storage and access of drawings
 It is quick and convenient to organize CAD drawings.
 You can have thousands of drawings on a computer’s hard disk and
you can open any one of them within seconds.
 Sharing CAD drawings
 The drawings can be shared by a number of users, allowing them to
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coordinate projects and work as a team.

 Cont’d
Project reporting:
 The computer can be used to prepare project reports
Engineering analysis
 There is a separate category of programs called CAE that
can use CAD drawings for engineering analysis.
 Computer aided manufacturing (CAM)
 CAM is a common method of manufacturing used by large
corporations.
 These systems import CAD drawings into CAM programs
to automate the manufacturing process.
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 CAD Programs
• Hundreds of CAD programs available in the CAD
industry today.
• Some are intended for general drawing work while
others are focused on specific engineering applications.
• Some of the CAD software packages used for drafting and
designing are: AutoCAD, Catia, Solid Works, Pro-
Engineer, uni-graphics etc.

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 1.2 AutoCAD Hardware and Software
 Conventional tools can be useful for sketching and
rough layout.
 The use of computers in every phase of engineering,
design, drawing, analysis is well known.
 A computer system consists of hardware and software.
 Hardware is the various pieces of physical equipment
that comprises a computer system.
 e.g. Input devices: keyboard, mouse, etc.
Output devices: monitor, printer, etc
Storage devices: floppy disk, hard disk, CD

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 Keyboard Inputs
 Using the keyboard is familiar to everyone who works
with computers.
 For much of the work that you do in AutoCAD you use
the keyboard, but you use a few keystrokes more often
than others.
 Special Keys
 You use the following keys most often. These keys have
special meaning to the software.
 Use the ESC key to cancel all current actions and return to
the Command: prompt.
 Press the ENTER key following all keyboard input.
 You also complete many commands by pressing ENTER.
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 Cont’d

 Pressing the SPACEBAR is equivalent to pressing

the ENTER, is often easier to use and at the
Command prompt repeats the last command used.

 Pressing the UP and DOWN arrow keys will cycle

through previous commands used.
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 Function Keys
 The use of each of the function keys can be duplicated in
other ways with the exception of F2.
 You may find that the on-screen equivalents to the function
keys are easier and allow you to keep your eyes on the screen.
F1 - AutoCAD Help Screens
F2 - Toggle Text/Graphics Screen
F3 - OSNAP On/Off
F4 - Toggle Tablet Modes On/Off
F5 - Toggle Iso planes Modes On/Off
F6 - Toggle Coordinates Modes On/Off
Coordinates has two modes when in a drawing command
Cartesian coordinate (X,Y coordinates)
Polar coordinates (Distance<Angle)

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F7 - Toggle Grid Modes On/Off
F8 - Toggle Ortho Modes On/Off
F9 - Toggle Snap Modes On/Off
F10- Toggle Polar Modes On/Off
F11- Toggle Object Snap Tracking Modes On/Off
Mouse Buttons
AutoCAD20ii utilizes the mouse buttons extensively.
It is important to understand the basic functions of the mouse
buttons.
It is highly recommended that you use a mouse or a tablet with
AutoCAD 20ii since the package uses the buttons for various
functions.
i. Left mouse button:
 Its used for most operations, such as selecting menus and icons.
 One click of the button is used to select icons, menus and form
entries
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 II. RIGHT MOUSE BUTTON

 The right-mouse-button is used to bring up

additional available options.
 The software also utilizes the right-mouse-
button as the same as the ENTER key, and
 It is often used to accept the default setting to
end a process.
III. MIDDLE MOUSE BUTTON/WHEEL:
 The middle mouse button/wheel can be used to
Pan (hold down the wheel button and drag the
mouse) or Zoom (rotate the wheel) real-time.
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03/05/2024 17
 Software is the programs, instructions that permit
computer system to operate.
 Computer software is categorized as either application
programs or operating system programs.
 Operating system programs are set of instructions that
control the operation of computer and peripheral
devices and enables the computer to:
 Communicate with you.
 Use devices such as the disk drives, keyboard and
monitor.
 The operating system continues to run until the
computer is turned off.
 e.g. Windows 98, Windows NT, ME, 2000, XP, OS/2,
Unix and more. 03/05/2024 18
Note: 1. Apple computers have their own operating system.
2. AutoCAD 2005 will not work with Windows 98 or
Apple.
Application software: The operating system is basically for
the computer.
Application Software is designed to do a specific task.
There are basically four major categories: Business, Utility,
Personal, and Entertainment.
Business application software would be desktop publishing,
worksheet programs, database software and graphics.
AutoCAD is "graphics” business application software. 19
 1.3 Auto CAD Window
Once the Auto CAD software is loaded into memory,
The AutoCAD drawing screen will appear on the screen
by:
i. selecting the AutoCAD icon on the Desktop: Double-
click the AutoCAD 2007 icon.
ii. selecting the AutoCAD option on the Program menu:
Click Start > All Programs (or Programs) > Autodesk
> AutoCAD 20ii > AutoCAD 2007.
Note that AutoCAD automatically assigns generic names,
Drawing X, as new drawings are created.
In our example, AutoCAD opened the graphics window
using the default system units and assigned the drawing
name Drawing1.
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03/05/2024 21
 AutoCAD drawing window

Standard Tool Bar – frequently used Pull-Down Menu Bar – click (left)
functions such as Open, Save, Undo, mouse button to pull menu down Drawing area – size usually
Pan, Zoom. defined by the drawing (draw
(ESC to cancel).
1:1).

Crosshairs (“pickbox”) point at

Object Properties Tool Bar – it shows (and use it to set) object current location in drawing
properties such as layer, color, and line type.

Draw and Modify Toolbars – these vertical toolbars can be

Status Bar – shows current
dragged (by the double lines) elsewhere if you wish. They carry coordinates in lower-left corner;
common drawing commands (Line, Polyline, Circle, Rectangle, buttons to quickly turn on/off
etc) and modifying commands (Offset, Move, Array, Rotate, Trim, common drawing aids such as
etc). Snap and Grid.

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Command window – enter commands here to communicate with ACAD; 3

command lines are seen by default. Press F2 to see more lines / go back to
Total Quality Management(TQM)
Auto CAD window screen

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 Drawing area: The large area in the center of the screen.
 This is where you will draw.
 This area represents a piece of paper.
 The color of this area can be changed. using Tools / Option /
Display / Color.
Crosshairs/ cursor: Located anywhere in the drawing area and
can be used to locate points, make selections and draw objects.
 The movement of the cursor is controlled by the movement of the
pointing device such as a mouse.
 The size can be changed, using Tools / Options / Display /
Crosshair Size.
Command line: Located at the bottom of the screen.
This is where you enter commands and Auto CAD will fast you to
input information.
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 Coordinate display: Located at lower left corner.
 It displays the location of the crosshairs/cursor in reference to the
Origin.
 It represents the horizontal movement (X-axis), the vertical
movement (Y-axis) and the Z-axis which is used for 3D.
Status bar: Located below the Command Line and displays the
current settings.
 These settings can be turned on and off by clicking on the word
(Snap, Grid, Ortho, etc.) or by pressing the function keys, F1, F2,
etc.
UCS Icon (user coordinate system): Located at lower left corner of
the screen and indicates the location of the Origin.
 The UCS icon appearance can be changed using: View/ Display/
Icon/ Properties.
Origin: The location where the X, Y and Z axes intersect (0,0,0).
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Menu bar: The menu bar is situated under the title bar and
contains names of menus from which commands can be
selected: (1)Menu bar, (2) Pull-down menu,(3) Arrow, (4) Sub
Menu appear, (5) Ellipsis ...

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 Toolbars: AutoCAD provides several toolbars to
access frequently used commands.
The (1) Standard, (2) Object Properties, (3) Draw,
and (4) Modify toolbars are displayed by default.
Toolbars can be “floated” or “docked”.
Floating toolbars (8) move freely in the window area
and can be resized.
Docked toolbars (9) are locked into place along the
top, bottom or sides of the AutoCAD Window.

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Toolbars

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 Drawing Aids
Grid and Snap Grid
• Grid: Area of the graphic covered with regularly spaced dots,
acting as visual reference.
• Snap Grid: Invisible grid that locks the pointer into alignment
with the grid points according to the spacing set by Snap.
• Note:
• Both options can be turned On/Off from the Status Bar.
• Grid and Snap Grid are independent options; and grids spacing
do not have to coincide.
• Grids shape and spacing can be specified from ‘Tools’ menu,
choosing ‘Drafting Settings’; or with command line ‘Dsettings’;
orCompiled
by right-clicking
by: chala D, PhD on the Status Bar 03/05/2024 29
 1.4 Setting-up New Drawing
1.4.1 Setting-up the Workspace
When you launch the application, the interface elements
displayed are only those associated with the active
workspace.
Workspace is a task-oriented drawing environment
oriented in such a way as to provide you with only the tools
and interface elements necessary to accomplish the tasks
relevant to that environment.
By default, AutoCAD 2016 has three workspace
configurations:
 Drafting & Annotation
 3D Basics
 3D Modeling 03/05/2024 30
The Drafting & Annotation workspace

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 1.4.2 Setting-up Drawing Units
 Every object we construct in a AutoCAD system is
measured in units.
 Value of the units within the AutoCAD system should be
determined before creating the first geometric entities.

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 1.4.3 Drawing Area Set-up
 Setting the Drawing Limits:
 controls the extents of the display of the grid,
 serves as a visual reference that marks the working area,
 used to prevent construction outside the grid limits and
 plot option that defines an area to be plotted/printed.
1. Command: Limits
2. Specify lower left corner or [On/Off] <0,0>:” is displayed.
Press the ENTER key once to accept the default coordinates <0,0>.
3. Specify upper right corner <12,9>:210, 297” to set up for A4 paper size.

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 Change the workspace to Drafting and Annotation at the same
time the necessary tools are displayed in RIBBON.
 Setting up the drawing units:
 Command: UNITS (Typing on command line)
 Drawing units dialog box appears on the screen containing:
 Length Type: Set to Decimal and Precision: 0
 Angle Type: Set to Decimal Degree and Precision: 0
 Unit to scale inserted: Set up to Millimeters
 To end: click on OK.
 Setting Up Drawing Area:
 Command: LIMITS(Typing on command line)
 Specify lower left corner or [On/Off] <0,0>: enter
 Specify upper right corner <12,9>: 420, 297 enter 03/05/2024 34
 1.4.4 Displaying Drawing
 Zoom: The ability to magnify details in a drawing or reduce
the drawing to see it in its entirely is a function of the zoom
command.
 The ZOOM command is used to move closer or farther
away to an object.
 Most of the time you will use the wheel on your mouse to
zoom in and out of display views in your drawing.
 Zoom commands

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 Pan
 It helps to reposition the center of your view on the
drawing by using the Pan command.
 Panning the drawing changes only the position of
your view of the drawing, not the location or
magnification of objects in the drawing.
 When the Pan command is active, the cursor
changes to a hand icon as shown above. Click and
drag the cursor to pan the drawing view.

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 1.5 Cartesian and polar coordinate system
 In a two-dimensional space, a point can be represented using
different coordinate systems.
 The point can be located, using a Cartesian coordinate system,
as X and Y units away from the origin. The same point can
also be located using the polar coordinate system, as r and θ
units away from the origin.
 Both Cartesian and polar coordinate system can be absolute
and relative coordinate values.
 Absolute coordinate values are measured from the current
coordinate system's origin point. e.g. X,Y and Distance <
Angle
 Relative coordinate values are specified in relation to previous
coordinates. e.g. @X,Y and @Distance < Angle
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Cartesian coordinate Polar coordinate

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 1.6 Working with CAD files
 Drawings are created and saved in the DWG
drawing file format.
 To access this data, you must learn how to create
a new drawing, save a drawing, and open these
file types.
 Use the Quick Access toolbar to create, open, and
save new drawings.

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 i. Open a Drawing
 To open a drawing, use the Open command
and select the files that you want to open.
 Command Access:
 Command Line: OPEN
 Application Menu: File > Open
 Toolbar: Quick Access

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 ii. Create a New Drawing
To create a new drawing, use the New command.
Select a template or select Open with no Template
(Imperial or Metric).
Drawing Templates are drawings that are saved in
template format (.dwt) and that can contain information
such as a title block, layers, text styles, dimension styles,
and settings relevant to your specific drawing needs.
Command Access:
 Command Line: NEW
 Application Menu: File > New
 Toolbar: Quick Access 03/05/2024 41
 iii. Saving Your Drawings
 Use the Save command to save your drawing.
 The first time you save a drawing, the Save Drawing As
dialog box appears.
 Navigate to the folder where you want to store the
drawing, enter a file name, and select Save.
 To save a drawing with a different name, select Save As.
 Command Access:
 Command Line: SAVE; SAVEAS
 Application Menu: File > Save; Save As
 Toolbar: Quick Access
 iv. Command Entry
 There are three possible methods for entering commands
in AutoCAD depending on your Options setting (for the
screen menu) and availability of a digitizing tablet.
 Generally, any one of the three methods can be used to
invoke a particular command depending on your system
configuration.

 All three methods of entering commands accomplish the

same goals; however, one method may offer a slightly
different option or advantage to another depending on the
command used. 03/05/2024 43
Figure 6.5
 CHAPTER- 2
CAD HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

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 CAD HARDWARE
Conventional Vs CAD Hardware:
 Input devices: may include alphanumeric and programmed
function keyboard, digitizing tablets, trackballs, styluses, touch
input devices.
 Output devices: may include conventional plotters, hardcopy
printers.
 Graphic display terminals: possess various local processors
and controls that can perform graphic
functions(transformations, graphics generations) unlike
conventional video terminals.
 CAD Work station
 CAD Work station: It has a capacity to support major software
packages, multitask capability, networking potential,
availability and portability.
 A typical CAD work station may consist of:
• Visual Display Unit/Graphic screen,
• An Alpha Numerics Display,
• A work station processor,
• An Electronic Command Table,
• a menu facility,
• Digitizer/ a cursor control device,
• keyboard,
• printer/mini plotter devices.
 CAD Hardware

CAD Hardware CAD input

devices
CAD input devices: C
CAD output
devices
a) Locating input devices/Locators/:
 Provide a position or location on the screen.
 These includes: a) Locating input devices
1) Light pens b) Digitizers
c) Image- input devices
2) Mouse
3) Joystick and Trackballs
4) Touch Sensitive Screen
5) The key board
 CAD Input Devices
1) Light Pens: it is a picking device that enables to select the
displayed item on the screen by directly touching the vicinity
of the item.
It detects light from the graphics items displayed on the screen
and sends an interrupted signal to the computer to determine
which item was seen by the pen.
 CAD Input Devices
2) Mouse: Two types - Mechanical and Optical
i. Mechanical mouse has a ball rolling on the
bottom in order to record the mouse motion in the
x and y directions which is later encoded into
digital values.
ii. Optical mouse has a light source and a beam
modulation and optical encoding techniques
measuring the movements over the mouse pad.
 Pushbuttons may be mounted on top of the mouse
and programmed to various functions.
 CAD Input Devices
[Link] and trackballs: are analogous to a mouse device, and operate
on the same principle. These devices are applicable to control velocity
or force in some simulation application where fast responses are
required

4) Touch Sensitive Screens: This device is embedded in the monitor

screens, usually, in the form of an overlay. The screen senses the
physical contact of the user.
 CAD Input Devices
5) Keyboard: the operator communicates with the system by typing
commands on this input devices to tell the computer what to do.
• It consists of alphanumeric keys, function keys which are
programmed to do a specific function for each application
software, and communication keys (eg. Window key).
 6) Digitizers
Digitizers: are electro-mechanical vector graphic input
devices that resemble a drafting board.
It consists of 3 basic elements:
• a locator(puck or stylus),
• a tablet, and
• a software.
There are electrical wires embedded in orthogonal
directions that receive and pass signals between the
device and the computer.
It is used to draw irregular shapes or copy a drawing.
 Digitizer
• Technical Definition: An electronic tablet work surface. The
position of a transducer, a handheld cursor or stylus pen, on
the work surface of the Drawing Board is converted-
digitized-into data for computer processing.

• Data output from the Drawing Board digitizer is in the form

of an X/Y coordinate pair that pinpoints the precise location
of the transducer on the tablet surface.

• By placing a drawing or sketch on the tablet's surface and

tracing over it, graphical information can be easily converted
into accurate digital information for entry into the computer
DIGITIZER
 CAD Input Devices
c) Image input Devices: Such as Scanners, and video gravers which can

copy a drawing or schematic with a camera and light beam assembly and

convert it into a pictorial database.

Scanners
 Performance Measurement of Input Devices
There are four important parameters that measure the
performance of input devices:
• Resolution • Repeatability
• Linearity • Accuracy
 Resolution. High resolution (or high res) refers to an image with a
high level of detail.
 Resolution is determined by the number of pixels per unit area;
pixels are the building blocks of an image, where smaller pixels
mean there are more of them in a given space, which makes the
final image more accurate.
 The term high resolution is used for digital images on TVs,
cameras, printers, scanners and computer monitors.
 CAD Output Devices
Soft Devices

CAD output devices Hard

Devices
Soft devices:

Soft devices are display terminals, which display

information on a screen,

Hard devices refer to hardcopy printers and plotters that

provide permanent copies of the displayed information.
IMAGE GENERATION IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS
There are two basic techniques used in current
computer graphics terminals for generating the
image on the screen:
1) Stroke writing and
2) Raster Scan
1) Stroke writing/ line drawing/random position:
electron beam is directed from one point to the
other like a pencil to create a line and an image is
formed out of the sequence of straight line
segments.
STROCK WRITING APPROACH
 2) Raster Scan
• The viewing screen is divided into large number of discrete
phosphor picture elements, called Pixels.
• The matrix of pixel constitutes the raster.
(eg.256x256,1024x1024)
• Each pixel can be made to glow with a different brightness
and colors.
• An electron beam creates the image by sweeping along a
horizontal line from left to right and energizing the pixels in
that line and move to the next line below and proceeds in a
fixed pattern as in fig.
• The process is repeated at rate of 30-60 entire scans per
second.
 RASTER SCAN APPROACH

Pixel
Hard Devices: refer to hard copy devices like plotters and printers are
used for this purpose.
 A plotter is often used to produce large size drawings and assemblies,
where as, a laser jet printer is adequate to provide a smaller size drawing.
 Plotter devices include:
 Pen Plotters(Flat bad type & Drum type)
 Hard-copy units
 Electrostatic plotters
 Computer-output-microfilm(COM) units
HARD COPY DRAWINGS Vs SOFT COPY DRAWINGS

 Hard copy drawings are more accurate

and has better quality (since soft copy
drawing quality depends on pixel
resolution and data are lost while
changing signals from analog to digital
and vise versa).
 Soft copy drawings are speedy than hard
one.
 CAD software
 Software: – system software
– Application software
 System software is a general program written for the
system, which provide the environment to facilitate the
writing of application software.
System software sometimes called as Operating System:
These are programs written by computer manufacturers,
which are in-built and used to govern the control of the
hardware of the computer such as processer, memory
devices, and input/output devices
 E.g. Operating systems(windows 2000/windows
XP/windows Vista, windows UNIX, windows 7, MS-DOS,
Windows NT , etc)
 software
• Application software is the set of program necessary to
carry out specific operations for specified application.
Application Soft Ware are user written programs to
perform specific jobs.
Some of the commercial CAD Application software:
1. Geometric modeling software
e.g. CATIA, PROE, IDEAS, AMD, UNIGRAPHICS, AUTOCAD,
SOLID WORKS, etc
2. Analysis software e.g. NASTRN, ANSYS, NISA, COSMOS
3. Simulation software e.g. ADAMS, 3D max, WM3d
Points to be noticed for designing Graphics Software:
1. Simplicity - easy to use
2. Consistency – predictable to user
3. Completeness – full set of graphic functions
4. Robustness – tolerating minor misuse
5. Performance – fast speed of response
6. Economy – not too expensive
 Computer Programming Language:
To write any software essentially language is
necessary
Data and instructions are communicated to the
computer in binary form
Binary number system is used to represent any
decimal number, letter, symbol
Three levels of computer Programming Language
1. machine language
2. Assembly language
3. Procedure-oriented(High level) Language
 Machine languages:
- Written in binary form(the binary coded instructions the
CPU understands)
- Machine specific (a program for one computer not run
on other)
- Programmer should be familiar with the specific
computer system
- Tedious, complicated, difficult and time consuming
 Assembly/low-level languages:
- They are symbolic languages(English like mnemonic
used for each binary each instructions)
- Machine specific(so difficult for the programmer)
- Most efficient in terms of fast execution of computer
High level languages:
- They are procedure oriented
- They are not machine dependant ( able to
run on any machine)
- Use English like statements with
standard mathematical elements
- Each statement is equivalent to
instructions in machine language
- Must be converted into machine code by
a special program called compiler.
 Modules in a Graphics Package
• The graphics software can be divided into three modules
according to a conceptual model.
o The graphics package
o The application program
o The application Database
Design Work Station
 Modules in a Graphics Package
 Application Program:
- Is the central module
- Controls the storing data into and retrieving the data
out of the application database.(Is driven by the user
through graphics package)
- Is written by the user to do a specific job
 Graphics Package: it acts as intermediate between
- User and graphics terminal
- User and the system
- User and graphics package
- It consists of input and output subroutines
 Application Database:
 Data base containing mathematical,
numerical, and logical definitions of the
application models, such as mechanical
components in terms of alphanumerical data
associated with the models like material ,mass
and geometric properties
 Functions of Graphics Package
1. Generations of graphics element
- Are 2 D basic image entities such as a dot, lines, circle, arcs, etc
- Are 3 D primitives such as sphere, cones, cylinder, or box
- There is a special hardware in graphics system for each graphic
elements
- Users use both 2D and 3D elements as a building block to construct
images
2. Transformations
- Modifying the generated objects,
- e.g. copying, moving, scaling, rotating, mirroring etc of the object
3. Display control and windowing function
- Viewing the object from different directions
- Hidden line removal (dividing the object into visible and invisible lines
and removing the invisibles to make it more understandable.)
4. Segmenting functions
- Capability to selectively replace, remove, or modify portion of the object
5. User input functions
- It permits users to enter commands and data.
 Database
It is an organized collection of graphics and non-graphics data stored in
the computer.
It is an art of storing data in computer. (Implementation of Data structure
in to computer)
Advantage: - Eliminate redundancy
- Enforce standards
- Apply security restriction
- Maintain integrity
- Balancing conflicting requirements
Methodology of storing data:
1. Relational database (storing related data in the form of table)
2. Hierarchical database( representing data by tree structure. Root is top of
the tree, for complete object representation surface, edge/line, vertex,
and coordinate system are required)
3. Networking database (complex but permits modeling of many to many)
4. Object oriented database(storing the object only not the individual
records)
 Database Coordinate system
 Three types of coordinate system are needed in order to
input, store and display model geometry and graphics:
Model Coordinate System(MCS): It is the reference space
w.r.t. which geometrical data of objects are stored. It is the
Cartesian coordinate.
World Coordinate System(WCS): It is used to explain
inclined faces or objects.
Screen Coordinate System(SCS): It is a two dimensional
device dependent system whose origin is usually located at
the lower left corner of the graphics display/screen. The
physical dimension of a device determine the range and
the measurement unit of SCS.
Thank You!!!!

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