Evolution and Biodiversity

Miller Chapter 5 Powerpoint Adapted from: [Link]

Essential Questions
Be able to describe how the earth is just right for life What is evolution? How has evolution lead to the current diversity of organisms? What is an ecological niche? How does it relate to adaptation to changing environmental conditions? How do extinction of species and formation of new species affect biodiversity?

Earth: The Goldilocks Planet

Temperature
Distance from Sun Geothermal energy from core Temperature fluctuated only 10-20oC over 3.7 billion years despite 30-40% increase in solar output

Water exists in 3 phases Right size (=gravitational mass to keep atmosphere) Resilient and adaptive Each species here today represents a long chain of evolution and each plays a role in its respective ecosystem

Origins of Life on Earth 4.7-4.8 Billion Year History

Evidence from chemical analysis and measurements of radioactive elements in primitive rocks and fossils. Life developed over two main phases:
Chemical evolution (took about 1 billion years)
Organic molecules, proteins, polymers, and chemical reactions to form first protocells

Biological evolution (3.7 billion years)

From single celled prokaryotic bacteria to eukaryotic creatures to eukaryotic multicellular organisms (diversification of species)

Summary of Evolution of Life

Chemical Evolution (1 billion years) Formation of the earths early crust and atmosphere Small organic molecules form in the seas Large organic molecules (biopolymers) form in the seas First protocells form in the seas

Biological Evolution (3.7 billion years)

Single-cell prokaryotes form in the seas Single-cell eukaryotes form in the seas Variety of multicellular organisms form, first in the seas and later on land

Biological Evolution

Modern humans (Homo sapiens) appear about 2 seconds before midnight

Age of mammals

Insects and amphibians invade the land Plants invade the land Fossils become abundant

Age of reptiles

Recorded human history begins 1/4 second before midnight Origin of life (3.63.8 billion years ago)

Fossils present but rare

Evolution and expansion of life

Fossil Record
Most of what we know of the history of life on earth comes from fossils (SJ Gould) Give us physical evidence of organisms
Show us internal structure

Uneven and incomplete record of species

We have fossils for 1% of species believed to have lived on earth Some organisms left no fossils, others decomposed, others have yet to be found.

Other info from ancient rocks, ice core, DNA The whale as an example Other evidence here

4 major mechanisms that drive evolution:

Natural Selection Mutation Gene Flow Genetic Drift

Unifying Principles of Evolution

Perpetual Change: All species are in a continuous state of change

Unifying Principles of Evolution

*Nature- The combined influences of physical and biological limiting factors* acting upon an organism.

Unifying Principles of Evolution

*Limiting Factor- Any factor (physical or biological) which regulates the welfare of an organism
Disease, competition, predation, environmental change, etc.

Darwinian Natural Selection

Three conditions necessary for evolution by natural selection to occur:
Natural variability for a trait in a population Trait must be heritable Trait must lead to differential reproduction

A heritable trait that enables organisms to survive AND reproduce is called an adaptation

Steps of Evolution by Natural Selection

Genetic variation is added to genotype by mutation Mutations lead to changes in the phenotype Phenotype is acted upon by natl selection Individuals more suited to environment produce more offspring (contribute more to total gene pool of population) Populations gene pool changes over time Speciation may occur if geographic and reproductive isolating mechanisms exist Natural Selection in action ... A demonstration...

Selection Against or in Favor of Extreme Phenotypes

Stabilizing Selection
Intermediate forms of a trait are favored Alleles that specify extreme forms are eliminated from a population EX: Birth Weight and Clutch Size

Stabilizing Selection

Number of individuals

Light snails eliminated

Dark snails eliminated

Natural selection

Number of individuals

Snails with extreme coloration are eliminated

Coloration of snails Average remains the same Number of individuals with intermediate coloration increases Eliminates Fringe Individuals

Coloration of snails

Selection Against or in Favor of Extreme Phenotypes

Disruptive Selection
Both forms at extreme ends are favored Intermediate forms are eliminated Bill size in African finches

Directional Change in the Range of Variation

Directional Selection
Shift in allele frequency in a consistent direction

Phenotypic Variation in a population of butterflies

Directional Selection
Pesticide Resistance
Pest resurgence

Antibiotic Resistance Grants Finch Beak Data With directional selection, allele frequencies tend to shift in response to directional changes in the environment

[Link] ary/05/2/l_052_04.html

Three types of Natural Selection

Directional
Allele frequencies shift to favor individuals at one extreme of the normal range
Only one side of the distribution reproduce Population looks different over time

Stabilizing
Favors individuals with an average genetic makeup
Only the middle reproduce Population looks more similar over time (elim. extremes)

Disruptive (aka Diversifying)

Environmental conditions favor individuals at both ends of the genetic spectrum
Population split into two groups

[Link] on/library/05/2/l_052_04.html

Why wont our lungs evolve to deal with air pollution?

Limits to adaptation:
A change in the environment can only lead to adaptation for traits already present in the gene pool Reproductive capacity may limit a populations ability to adapt
If you reproduce quickly (insects, bacteria) then your population can adapt to changes in a short time If you reproduce slowly (elephants, tigers, corals) then it takes thousands or millions of years to adapt through natural selection

Most individuals without trait would have to die in order for the trait to predominate and be passed on

Take Home #1
When faced with a change in environmental condition, a population of a species can get MAD:
MIGRATE to a more favorable location ALREADY be adapted DIE

Natural selection can only act on inherited alleles already present in the populationdo not think that the environment creates favorable heritable characteristics! [Link] do new alleles arise??????

MUTATIONS, MY FRIENDS!
Changes in the structure of the DNA Adds genetic diversity to the population May or may not be adaptive
Depends on the environment!

[Link] Evolution?
The change in a POPULATIONS genetic makeup (gene pool) over time (successive generations)
Those with selective advantages (i.e., adaptations), survive and reproduce All species descended from earlier ancestor species

Microevolution Small genetic changes in a population such as the spread of a mutation or the change in the frequency of a single allele due to selection (changes to gene pool)
Not possible without genetic variability in a pop

Macroevolution
Long term, large scale evolutionary changes through which new species are formed and others

Microevolution
Changes in a populations gene pool over time.
Genetic variability within a population is the catalyst

Four Processes cause Microevolution

Mutation (random changes in DNAultimate source of new alleles) [stop little]
Exposure to mutagens or random mistakes in copying Random/unpredictable relatively rare

Natural Selection (more fit = more offspring) Gene flow (movement of genes between pops) Genetic drift (change in gene pool due to random/chance events)

The Case of the Peppered Moths

Industrial revolution
Pollution darkened tree trunks

Camouflage of moths increases survival from predators Directional selection caused a shift away from light-gray towards dark-gray moths

Fig. 18.5, p. 287

Gene Flow and Genetic Drift

Gene Flow
Flow of alleles
Emigration and immigration of individuals

Genetic Drift
Random change in allele frequencies over generations brought about by chance
In the absence of other forces, drift leads to loss of genetic diversity
Elephant seals, cheetahs

Genetic Drift
Magnitude of drift is greatest in small populations

Speciation
Adapted to cold through heavier fur, short ears, short legs, short nose. White fur matches snow for camouflage.

Northern population Spreads northward and southward and separates Arctic Fox Different environmental conditions lead to different selective pressures and evolution into two different species.

Early fox population

Southern population

Gray Fox

Adapted to heat through lightweight fur and long ears, legs, and nose, which give off more heat.

Speciation
Two species arise from one
Requires Reproductive isolation
Geographic: Physically separated Temporal: Mate at different times Behavioral: Bird calls / mating rituals Anatomical: Picture a mouse and an elephant hooking up Genetic Inviability: Mules

Allopatric
Speciation that occurs when 2 or more populations of a species are geographically isolated from one another The allele frequencies in these populations change Members become so different that that can no no longer interbreed See animation

Sympatric
Populations evolve with overlapping ranges Behavioral barrier or hybridization or polyploidy

TAKE HOME #2
Macroevolution is the cumulative result of a series of microevolutionary events
Typically seen in fossil record Nobody around to see the small, gene pool changes over time.

COEVOLUTION: Interaction Biodiversity

Species so tightly connected, that the evolutionary history of one affects the other and vice versa.
Ant Farmers of the Amazon

Coevolution
Interactions between species can cause microevolution
Changes in the gene pool of one species can cause changes in the gene pool of the other

Adaptation follows adaptation in something of a long term arms race between interacting populations of different populations
The Red Queen Effect

Can also be symbiotic coevolution

Angiosperms and insects (pollinators) Corals and zooxanthellae Rhizobium bacteria and legume root nodules

And NUH is the letter I use to spell Nutches, Who live in small caves, known as Niches, for hutches. These Nutches have troubles, the biggest of which is The fact there are many more Nutches than Niches. Each Nutch in a Nich knows that some other Nutch Would like to move into his Nich very much. So each Nutch in a Nich has to watch that small Nich Or Nutches who haven't got Niches will snitch.
-On Beyond Zebra (1955) Dr. Seuss

Niches
A species functional role in an ecosystem Involves everything that affects its survival and reproduction Includes range of tolerance of all abiotic factors Trophic characteristics How it interacts with biotic and abiotic factors Role it plays in energy flow and matter cycling Fundamental Niche Full potential range of physical chemical and biological conditions and resources it could theoretically use if there was no direct competition from other species Realized Niche Part of its niche actually occupied Generalist vs. Specialist Lives many different places, eat many foods, tolerate a wide range of conditions vs few, few, intolerant Which strategy is better in a stable environment vs unstable?

POLLENPEEPERS
POLLENPEEPER EVOLUTION

Niche Overlap

Number of individuals

Niche separation Generalist species with a narrow niche Generalist species with a broad niche

Niche breadth Region of niche overlap Resource use

Competition Shrinks Niches

Competition and Community Diversity

Species evolve to minimize competition and niche overlap

Results in a diverse matrix of differing species within a community

Whats This Niche Stuff Got to do with Evolution and Biodiversity?

Hmmmmm. Lets think about three key points.
The more niches you have in an ecosystem The more of a generalist species you are The more of a specialist species you are

Era

Period

Millions of

years ago Cenozoic Quaternary Today 65 Cretaceous Mesozoic Jurassic 180 Triassic 250 Permian Carboniferous Paleozoic 345 Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian 500

Bar width represents relative number of living species

Species and families experiencing mass extinction

Current extinction crisis caused by human activities. Cretaceous: up to 80% of ruling reptiles (dinosaurs); many marine species including many foraminiferans and mollusks. Triassic: 35% of animal families, including many reptiles and marine mollusks. Permian: 90% of animal families, including over 95% of marine species; many trees, amphibians, most bryozoans and brachiopods, all trilobites. Devonian: 30% of animal families,

Extinction

Tertiary
Extinction

Extinction

Extinction

Extinction

Extinction

Ordovician: 50% of animal families,

Extinction
Local, ecological and true extinction The ultimate fate of all species just as death is for all individual organisms 99.9% of all the species that have ever existed are now extinct To a very close approximation, all species are extinct Background vs. Mass Extinction Low rate vs. 25-90% of total Five great mass extinctions in which numerous new species (including mammals) evolved to fill new or vacated niches in changed environments 10 million years or more for adaptive radiations to rebuild biological diversity following a mass extinction Extinctions open up new opportunities for speciation and adaptive radiation..BUT you can have too much of a good thing!

Factors Affecting Extinction Rates

Natural Extinctions
Climate change Cataclysmic event (volcano, earthquake)

Human Activities
Habitat Loss/Fragmentation Introduction of exotic/invasive species Pollution Commercial harvesting Accidental killing (tuna nets) Harassing Pet Trade Urbanization Damming/Flooding Agricultural conversion

Extinction in the Context of Evolution

If
the environment changes rapidly and The species living in these environments do not already possess genes which enable survival in the face of such change and Random mutations do not accumulate quickly enough then,

All members of the unlucky species may die

Biodiversity
Speciation Extinction=Biodiversity
Humans major force in the premature extinction of species. Extinction rate increased by 100-1000 times the natural background rate. As we grow in population over next 50 years, we are expected to take over more of the earths surface and productivity. This may cause the premature extinction of up to a QUARTER of the earths current species and constitute a SIXTH mass extinction
Genetic engineering wont solve this problem Only takes existing genes and moves them around

Know why this is so important and what we are losing as it disappears.

USING EVOLUTION AND GENETICS TO INFORM CONSERVATION

EcoRegions Approach
Identifying biodiversity hotspots and focusing conservation efforts on maintaining those ecosystems Ex. Tropics, Appalachian Mountains, etc.

Umbrella Species Conservation

Conserve one sexy, species and you conserve several others because if the interactions they have with one another Keystone species concept

Species Survival Plan (SSP)

Zoo captive breeding programs Population genetics in wild populations
Ex. Cheetahs, Primates, Bears, etc.

Federal and International Legislation

Endangered Species Act (1973)
Protection for endangered and threatened plant and animal species & their habitats
Effectiveness??? Exemptions are often granted if
No alternatives to the project National or regional significance of project Benefits outweigh those of any alternatives

CITES (late 1970s)-prohibits trade and commerce of threatened and endangered species
By 1998: signed by 144 countries