• Subject Name: TRANSPORTATION

ENGINEERING

• Department: CIVIL ENGINEERING

• Prepared by: AKSHITHA C A

 Module-2

HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC
DESIGN
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRICS DESIGN

The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and

layout of visible features of the highway. The emphasis of the
geometric design is to address the requirement of the driver and the
vehicle such as safety, comfort, efficiency, etc. The features
normally considered are the cross section elements, sight distance
consideration, horizontal curvature, gradients, and intersection. The
objective of geometric design is to provide maximum efficiency, in
traffic operations with maximum safety at reasonable cost. The
emphasis of the geometric design is to address the requirement of
the driver and the vehicle such as safety, comfort, efficiency, etc.
Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment will enhance the
construction, maintenance and vehicle operating cost. Once an alignment is fixed
and constructed, it is not easy to change it due to increase in Cost of adjoining
land and construction of costly Structures by the roadside.
Source:
[Link]
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRICS DESIGN

• The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible
features of the highway. The emphasis of the geometric design is to address the
requirement of the driver and the vehicle such as safety, comfort, efficiency, etc. The
features normally considered are the cross section elements, sight distance
consideration, horizontal curvature, gradients, and intersection. The objective of
geometric design is to provide maximum efficiency, in traffic operations with
maximum safety at reasonable cost. The emphasis of the geometric design is to address
the requirement of the driver and the vehicle such as safety, comfort, efficiency, etc.
Geometric design of highways deals with the following elements:
• 1. Cross-section elements
• 2. Sight distance considerations
• 3. Horizontal alignment details
• 4. Vertical alignment details
• 5. Intersection elements
 • GEOMETRIC DESIGN ELEMENTS

Cross-section elements - It includes cross slope, various widths of road

(i.e., width of pavement, formation width and road land width), surface
characteristics and features in the road margins.

Sight distance considerations - It the visible land ahead of the driver at

horizontal and vertical curves and at intersections for the safe movements of
vehicles.

Horizontal alignment - Horizontal curves are introduced to change the

direction of road. It includes features like super elevation, radius of curve,
transition curve, extra widening and setback distance.

Vertical alignment - Its components like gradient, vertical curves (i.e.,

summit curve and valley curve) sight distance and design of length of
curves.

Intersection elements - Proper design of intersection is very much essential

for the safe and efficient traffic movements. Its features like layout,
capacity, etc.
 Factors affecting geometric design
Design speed: Design speed is the single most important factor that affects the
geometric design. It directly affects the sight distance, horizontal curve, and the length
of vertical curves. Since the speed of vehicles vary with driver, terrain etc., a design
speed is adopted for all the geometric design. Design speed is defined as the highest
continuous speed at which individual vehicles can travel with safety on the
highway when weather conditions are conducive. Design speed is different from the
legal speed limit which is the speed limit imposed to curb a common tendency of
drivers to travel beyond an accepted safe speed. Design speed is also different from the
desired speed which is the maximum speed at which a driver would travel when
unconstrained by either track or local geometry.

Topography: It is easier to construct roads with required standards for a plain

terrain. However, for a given design speed, the construction cost increases multi form
with the gradient and the terrain. Therefore, geometric design standards are different for
different terrain to keep the cost of construction and time of construction under control.
This is characterized by sharper curves and steeper gradients.
 • Terrain classification

Design speed in km/hr as per IRC (ruling and minimum)

 Conti….

Traffic factors: It is of crucial importance in highway design, is the traffic data both
current and future estimates. Traffic volume indicates the level of services (LOS) for
which the highway is being planned and directly affects the geometric features such as
width, alignment, grades etc., without traffic data it is very difficult to design any
highway.

Design Hourly Volume and Capacity: The general unit for measuring traffic on
highway is the Annual Average Daily Traffic volume, abbreviated as AADT. The
traffic flow (or) volume keeps fluctuating with time, from a low value during off peak
hours to the highest value during the peak hour. It will be uneconomical to design the
roadway facilities for the peak traffic flow. Therefore a reasonable value of traffic
volume is decided for the design and this is called as Design Hourly Volume (DHV)
which is determined from extensive traffic volume studies. The ratio of volume to
capacity affects the level of service of the road. The geometric design is thus based on
this design volume, capacity etc.

Environmental and other factors: The environmental factors like air pollution, noise
pollution, landscaping, aesthetics and other global conditions should be given due
considerations in the geometric design of roads.
 CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS

• Pavement surface Characteristics

 Friction –skid and slip resistance
 Pavement unevenness
 Light reflecting Characteristics
 Surface drainage
• 1) FRICTION
• • Skidding: when the path travelled along the road surface is more than the
circumferential movement of the wheels due to their rotation.
• • Slipping: when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding
longitudinal movement along the road.

• Factors affecting the friction or skid resistance

• • Types of pavement surface Roughness of pavement
• • Condition of the pavement: wet or dry
• • Type and condition of tyre Speed of the vehicle
• • Brake efficiency
• • Load and tyre pressure
• • Temperature of tyre and pavement
 Smooth and worn out tyres offer higher friction factor on dry pavement
but new tyre with good threads gives higher friction factor on wet
pavement
 IRC recommended the longitudinal co-efficient of friction varies 0.35 to
0.4 and lateral co-efficient of friction of 0.15
• 2) Pavement unevenness
• Higher operating speed are possible on even surface than uneven surface.
• It affects,
• • Vehicle operation cost
• • Comfort and safety
• • Fuel consumption
• • Wear and tear of tyres and other moving parts
• • It is commonly measure by an equipment call "Bump Integrator"
• • Bump integrator is the cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the
pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal length.
• • 250 cm/km for a speed of 100kmph and more than 350 cm/km considered
very unsatisfactory even at speed of 50 kmph.
• Unevenness of pavement surface may be caused by
• In adequate compaction of the fill, subgrade and pavement layers.

• On-scientific construction practices including the use of boulder stones

and bricks as soiling course over loose subgrade soil.

• Use of inferior pavement material.

•
Improper surface and subsurface drainage
•
Improper construction machinery.
•
Poor maintenance
• Light reflecting characteristics
•
• Night visibility very much depends upon the light reflecting characteristics of
the pavement surface
•
• The glare caused by the reflection of head light is high on wet pavement
surface than on dry pavement particularly in case of black top
pavement or flexible pavement.
•
• Light colored or white pavement or rigid pavement surface give good
visibility at night particularly during the rain, and produces glare or eye strain
during bright sunlight.
 • Highway cross section elements
•
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] width
[Link] of way
• [Link] line
• [Link] line
[Link]
[Link]/ cross slope
[Link]
[Link] slope
• [Link]
[Link] rail
[Link] drain
[Link] facilities
• Carriageway:
It is the travel way which is used for movement of vehicle, it takes the
vehicular loading.
It may be cement concrete road or bituminous pavement.
Width of carriageway is determined on the basis of the width of the vehicle
and the minimum side clearance for safety.
As per IRC specification, the maximum width of vehicle is 2.44m,minimum
clearance of 0.68 in case of single lane and 1.02m in case of double lane.
• Shoulder:
• It is provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for vehicle.
•
• It act as a service lane for vehicles that have broken down.
•
• The minimum shoulder width of 4.6 m so that a truck stationed at the side of
the shoulder would have a clearance of 1.85m from the pavement edge.
•
• IRC recommended the minimum shoulder width is 2.5 m
•
• It should have sufficient load bearing capacity even in wet weather.
•
• The surface of the should be rougher than the traffic lanes so that vehicles
are discouraged to use the shoulder as a regular traffic.
•
• The color should be different from that of the pavement so as to be distinct.
• Width of the roadway or formation width:
•
• It is the sum of the width of the carriageway or pavement including
separators if any and the shoulders.
•
Right of way:
•
• It is the total area of land acquired for the road along its alignment.
•
• It depends on the importance of the road and possible future development.
•
• It is desirable to acquire more width of land as the cost of adjoining land
invariably increases very much , soon after the new highway is constructed.
• Building lane:
•
• In order to reserve sufficient space for future development of roads, It
is desirable to control the building activities on either side of the road
• boundary, beyond the land width acquired for the land.
•
Control lines:
•
• In addition to "building line", it is desirable to control the nature of
building upto further "setback distance" .
• Traffic separators or median:
•
• The main function is to prevent head on collision between the vehicle
• moving in opposite direction.

• Channelize traffic into streams at intersection.

•
• Segregate slow traffic and to protect pedestrians.
•
• IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5 m and may be reduce
to 3 m where land is restricted.
•
• The minimum width of median in urban area is 1.2m.
Camber

• Camber is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain of rain water from road surface. The objectives of providing camber
are:
Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads
Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety
• Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1
in n or n% (Eg. 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value depends on the type of pavement surface.
The values suggested by IRC for various categories of pavement is given in [Link]
common types of camber are parabolic, straight, or combination of them.
• Shape of the cross slope:
•
• Parabolic shape(fast moving vehicle)
•
• Straight line
•
• Combination of parabolic and straight line
•
TYPES OF CAMBER
•
Problem on camber:
[Link] a district where the rainfall is heavy, two types of road pavement are to be
constructed.
• (a) Two-lane State Highway with bituminous concrete surface and
• (b)Major district road WBM pavement 3.8 m wide.
• What should be the height of the crown with respect to edges in these two cases,
assuming straight line camber? calculate the height of the camber at every offset
interval of 50 cm in case of MDR and 1m in case of SH.
Kerbs
•
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or
islands or footpaths.

Low or mountable kerbs: This type of kerbs is provided such that they
encourage the traffic to remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the
driver to enter the shoulder area with little difficulty. The height of this kerb
is about 10 cm above the pavement edge with a slope which allows the
vehicle to climb easily. This is usually provided at medians and
channelization schemes and also helps in longitudinal drainage.

Semi-barrier type kerbs: When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are
provided. Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb
prevents encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute emergency it is
possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.
• Barrier type kerbs: They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the
pavement. They are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian
traffic. They are placed at a height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep
batter.

• Submerged kerbs: They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at
pavement edges between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide lateral
confinement and stability to the pavement.
Road margins
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally called road
margin.
Various elements that form the road margins are given below.

Shoulders: Shoulders are provided along the road edge and is intended for accommodation of stopped
vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for base and surface
courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded truck even in wet
conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working space around a stopped
vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of 4.6 m for the shoulders. A minimum width of 2.5 m is
recommended for 2-lane rural highways in India.

Parking lanes: Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is
preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving on the road. The parking lane should have a
minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking.

Bus-bays: Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are provided so that they
do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way. They should be at least 75 meters
away from the intersection so that the traffic c near the intersections is not affected by the bus-bay.
.
• Service roads: Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled
highways like freeways and expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will
be usually isolated by a separator and access to the highway will be provided only at
selected points. These roads are provided to avoid congestion in the expressways and
also the speed of the traffic in those lanes is not reduced.

• Cycle track: Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle
traffic is high Minimum width of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1
meter for every additional track.

• Footpath: Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban

areas. They are provided for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian
traffic and vehicular traffic is high. Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be
increased based on the traffic. The footpath should be either as smooth as the
pavement or smoother than that to induce the pedestrian to use the footpath
Width of carriage way
Width of formation
• Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of
pavements or carriage way including separators and shoulders. This does not
include the extra land in formation/cutting. The values suggested by IRC are
given in Table
Right of way

• Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its
alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the
highway and may reasonably provide for future development. To prevent ribbon
development along highways, control lines and building lines may be provided.

• The right of way width is governed by:

 Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and
road margins.
 Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography and the vertical
alignment.
 Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil type etc.
 Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.
 Sight distance considerations: On curves etc. there is restriction to the visibility on the inner
side of the curve due to the presence of some obstructions like building structures etc.
 Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in advance anticipating
future developments like widening of the road.
Cross section elements
 SIGHT DISTANCE
• The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very much on the visibility of the
road ahead of the driver. Thus the geometric design of the road should be done such that any
obstruction on the road length could be visible to the driver from some distance ahead. This distance
is said to be the sight distance.

• Types of sight distance

• Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface, over which a
driver from a specified height above the carriage way has visibility of stationary or moving objects.
Three sight distance situations are considered for design:
 Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance
 Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is defined as twice SSD
 Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation
 Head light sight distance is the distance visible to a driver during night driving under the
illumination of head lights
 Safe sight distance to enter into an intersection.

• The most important consideration in all these is that at all times the driver traveling at the design
speed of the highway must have sufficient carriageway distance within his line of vision to allow
him to stop his vehicle before colliding with a slowly moving or stationary object appearing
suddenly in his own traffic lane.
•
Types of sight distance
•
[Link] or absolute minimum sight distance(SSD)

• [Link] overtaking or passing sight distance (OSD)

• [Link] sight distance for entering into uncontrolled intersection.

• [Link] sight distance (ISD)

• [Link] light sight distance (HSD)

Sight distance at intersections
• At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided for the drivers
approaching the intersection from either side. They should be able to perceive a hazard and stop
the vehicle if required. Stopping sight distance for each road can be computed from the design
speed. The sight distance should be provided such that the drivers on either side should be able
to see each other. This is illustrated in the figure above.
• Design of sight distance at intersections may be used on three possible conditions:
 Enabling approaching vehicle to change the speed
 Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
 Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road
 The computation (factors) of sight distance
depends on
• Reaction time of the driver
• Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver
to the instant when the brakes are applied. The total reaction time may be split up into four
components based on PIEV theory. In practice, all these times are usually combined into a total
perception-reaction time suitable for design purposes as well as for easy measurement. Many of
the studies show that drivers require about 1.5 to 2 secs under normal conditions. However,
taking into consideration the variability of driver characteristics, a higher value is normally used
in design. For example, IRC suggests a reaction time of 2.5 secs.
• Speed of the vehicle
• The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. Higher the speed, more time
will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident that, as the speed increases, sight
distance also increases.
• Efficiency of brakes
• The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle characteristics etc. If
the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment the brakes are applied. But
practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency. Therefore the sight distance
required will be more when the efficiency of brakes are less. Also for safe geometric design, we
assume that the vehicles have only 50% brake efficiency.

• Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road

• The frictional resistance between the tyre and road plays an important role to bring the vehicle
to stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop immediately. Thus sight required
will be less. No separate provision for brake efficiency is provided while computing the sight
distance. This is taken into account along with the factor of longitudinal friction. IRC has specified
the value of longitudinal friction in between 0.35 to 0.4.

• Gradient of the road.

• Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a gradient, the vehicle
can stop immediately. Therefore sight distance required is less. While descending a gradient,
gravity also comes into action and more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Sight distance
required will be more in this case.
• Stopping Sight Distance
•
• SSD is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot
having sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at
design speed, safely without collision with any other obstruction.
•
It depends on:
•
• Feature of road ahead
•
• Height of driver's eye above the road surface(I.2m)
•
• Height of the object above the road surface(0.15m)
• Factors affecting the SSD
• Total reaction time of driver
• Speed of vehicle
• Efficiency of brakes
• Frictional resistance between road and tyre
• Gradient of road
•
Total reaction time of driver:
• It is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver to the
instant the brake is effectively applied, it divide into types
I. Perception time
2. Brake reaction time
• Perception time:
•
• it is the time from the instant the object comes on the line of sight of the
driver to the instant he realizes that the vehicle needs to be stopped.
•
Brake reaction time:
•
• The brake reaction also depends on several factor including the skill of the
driver, the type of the problems and various other environment factor.
•
• Total reaction time of driver can be calculated by "PIEV" theory
• "PIEV" Theory
•
Total reaction time of driver is split into four parts:

• P-perception
•
I-intellection

• E-Emotion

• V-Volition
•
• Perception:
• It is the time required for the sensation received by the eyes or ears to be
transmitted to the brain through the nervous system and spinal chord.
•
Intellection:
• It is the time required for understanding the situation.
•
Emotion:
• It is the time elapsed during emotional sensation and disturbance such as
fear, anger or any other emotional feeling such as superstition etc, with
reference to the situation.
•
Volition:
It is the time taken for the final action
•
Total reaction time of driver may be vary from 0.5 sec to 4 sec
Stopping sight distance

• Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the minimum sight distance available on a

highway at any spot having sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a
vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without collision with any other
obstruction.
• The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance and the braking
distance. Lag distance is the distance the vehicle traveled during the reaction
time t and is given by v * t, where v is the velocity in m/sec2. Braking
distance is the distance traveled by the vehicle during braking operation. For a
level road this is obtained by equating the work done in stopping the vehicle
and the kinetic energy of the vehicle.
• If F is the maximum frictional force developed and the braking distance is l,
then work done against friction in stopping the vehicle is Fl = fWl where W
is the total weight of the vehicle. The kinetic energy at the design speed is
Analysis of SSD
• The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance and the braking
distance.
Lag distance:
It is the distance, the vehicle traveled during the reaction time .
If 'V' is the design speed in m/sec and 't' is the total reaction time of the
driver in seconds,
• Braking distance :
• It is the distance traveled by the vehicle after the application of brake. For a
level road this is obtained by equating the work done in stopping the vehicle and
the kinetic energy of the vehicle.
• work done against friction force in stopping the vehicle is F x I = f WI, where
W is the total weight of the vehicle.
• The kinetic energy at the design speed of v m/sec will be 1/2 m. v²
 • Problems on SSD
• Example-I
• Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for
design speed of 50kmph for(a) two-way traffic on
two lane road (b)two-way traffic on single lane road
•
Example-2
• Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on collision of
two cars approaching from opposite direction at 90 and [Link]
friction of 0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50%, in either case
•
Example-3
• Calculate the stopping sight distance on a highway at a descending gradient of
2% for design speed of 80 kmph, assume other data as per IRC specification.
 Overtaking sight distance
• The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the
driver of a vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against the traffic
in the opposite direction. The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is
measured along the center line of the road over which a driver with his eye level 1.2m
above the road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface.
• The factors that affect the OSD are:
Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and of the vehicle coming in the
opposite direction.
 Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the speed
 Skill and reaction time of the driver
 Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
 Gradient of the road
Overtaking Manoeuvre
The overtaking sight distance is,
 Overtaking zones
• Overtaking zones are provided when OSD cannot be provided throughout the
length of the highway. These are zones dedicated for overtaking operation,
marked with wide roads. The desirable length of overtaking zones is 5 time
OSD and the minimum is three times OSD
 • Problems on OSD
• Example-I
The speed of the overtaking and overtaken vehicle are 70 and 40 kmph,
respectively on a two way traffic road. If the acceleration of overtaking
vehicle is 0.99 m/sec²,
a) Calculate safe overtaking sight distance
b) Calculate the minimum and desirable length of overtaking zone
c) Draw the neat-sketch Of the overtaking zone and show the position Of the
sign post.
•
ExampIe-2
Calculate the safe overtaking sight distance for a design speed of 96 kmph,
assume all other data suitable.

• ExampIe-3
• Calculate the safe overtaking sight distance for a design speed of 90kmph.
Acceleration = 2.5kmph/sec. Assume all other data required.
 Horizontal alignment

• Introduction
• Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features influencing the efficiency
and safety of a highway. A poor design will result in lower speeds and resultant
reduction in highway performance in terms of safety and comfort. In addition, it may
increase the cost of vehicle operations and lower the highway capacity. Horizontal
alignment design involves the understanding on the design aspects such as design speed
and the effect of horizontal curve on the vehicles. The horizontal curve design elements
include design of super elevation, extra widening at horizontal curves, design of
transition curve, and set back distance.
 • Design Speed
• The design speed, as noted earlier, is the single most important factor in the design
of horizontal alignment. The design speed also depends on the type of the road. For e.g, the
design speed expected from a National highway will be much higher than a village road, and
hence the curve geometry will vary significantly. The design speed also depends on the type of
terrain.
• A plain terrain can afford to have any geometry, but for the same standard in a
hilly terrain requires substantial cutting and filling implying exorbitant costs as well as safety
concern due to unstable slopes. Therefore, the design speed is normally reduced for terrains
with steep slopes. For instance, Indian Road Congress (IRC) has classified the terrains into four
categories, namely plain, rolling, mountainous, and steep based on the cross slope. Based on the
type of road and type of terrain the design speed varies. The IRC has suggested desirable or
ruling speed as well as minimum suggested design speed
 • Terrain classification

Design speed in km/hr as per IRC (ruling and minimum)

 • HORIZONTAL CURVE
• The presence of horizontal curve imparts centrifugal force which is a reactive force
acting outward on a vehicle negotiating it. Centrifugal force depends on speed and radius
of the horizontal curve and is counteracted to a certain extent by transverse friction
between the tyre and pavement surface. On a curved road, this force tends to cause the
vehicle to overrun or to slide outward from the center of road curvature. The centrifugal
force P in kg=m² is given by
• P= Wv²
• gR
• where W is the weight of the vehicle in kg, v is the speed of the vehicle in m/sec,
• g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/sec² and
• R is the radius of the curve in m.
• The centrifugal ratio or the impact factor P/W is given by:
• P = v²
• W gR
• The centrifugal force has two effects: a tendency to overturn the vehicle about the outer
wheels and a tendency for transverse skidding. Taking moments of the forces with respect
to the other when the vehicle is just about to override is give as:
• Ph = Wb
• 2
• At the equilibrium over turning is possible when
V² = b
gR 2h

• And for safety the following condition must satisfy:

• b > V²
• 2h gR
• Cont.....
P/W is known as the centrifugal ratio or the impact factor. The centrifuge ratio
is thus equal to v²/gR .
The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has two
effects,
• 1) Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels
• 2) Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards

• Overturning effect
• The equilibrium condition for overturning will occur when Ph = Wb/2, or
when P/ W = b/2h. This means that there is danger of overturning when the
centrifugal when the centrifugal ratio P/ W or v²/gR attains a values of b/2h.
Lateral skidding
 Analysis of super-elevation
Super-elevation or cant or banking is the transverse slope provided at horizontal
curve to counteract the centrifugal force, by raising the outer edge of the pavement with
respect to the inner edge, throughout the length of the horizontal curve. Forces acting on
a vehicle on horizontal curve of radius R m at a speed of v m/sec are:
 Conti…

P the centrifugal force acting horizontally out-wards through the center of gravity,
W the weight of the vehicle acting down-wards through the center of gravity, and
F the friction force between the wheels and the pavement, along the surface inward.
• At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the pavement we
get, At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the pavement we
get,
• P cosθ = W sin θ + FA + FB
• = W sin θ + f (RA + RB)
• = W sin θ + f (W cos θ + P sin θ)
• where W is the weight of the vehicle, P is the centrifugal force, f is the coefficient of
friction, f is the transverse slope due to super elevation. Dividing by W cos θ, we get:
Conti…
 Problems on super elevation
• 1) Design super elevation for a rolling terrain given radius of horizontal curve
480m. Width of the pavement 7.5m and also determine the height of outer edge
wrt inner edge.

• 2) Design super elevation for a plain terrain given radius of horizontal curve
250m.

• 3) The Design speed of a highway is 80kmph given radius of horizontal curve

200m.
a)Calculate the super elevation required to maintain this speed
b)If the maximum super elevation of 0.07 is not to be exceeded, calculate the
maximum allowable speed on this horizontal curve as it is not possible to
increase the radius.
 ATTAINMENT OF SUPER-ELEVATION
Elimination of the crown of the cambered section by:
Rotating the outer edge about the crown: The outer half of the cross slope is rotated about
the crown at a desired rate such that this surface falls on the same plane as the inner half.

Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full super elevation

There are two methods of attaining super elevation by rotating the pavement
Rotation about the center line : The pavement is rotated such that the inner edge is
depressed and the outer edge is raised both by half the total amount of super elevation,
i.e., by E=2 with respect to the center
Rotation about the inner edge: Here the pavement is rotated raising the outer edge as
well as the center such that the outer edge is raised by the full amount of super elevation
with respect to the inner edge.
• Attainment of superelevation
Split-up into two parts::
• Elimination of crown of the cambered section
• Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation.

• Elimination of crown of the cambered section

1st Method: Outer edge rotated about the crown

•
• Attainment of superelevation
Disadvantages :
• Small length of road — cross slope less than camber
• Drainage problem in outer half
•
2nd Method: Crown shifted outwards
•

• Disadvantages :
• Large negative super elevation on outer half
• Drivers have the tendency to run the vehicle along shifted crown
• Attainment of superelevation
Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation
1st Method: Rotation about the C/L (depressing the inner edge and raising
the outer edge each by half the total amount Of superelevation)
Advantages
• Earthwork is balanced
• Vertical profile Of the C/L remains unchanged
Disadvantages
• Drainage problem: depressing the inner edge
below the general level
• Attainment of superelevation
2nd Method: Rotation about the Inner edge (raising both the center as well as
outer edge — outer edge is raised by the total amount Of superelevation)
Advantaqes
• NO drainage problem
Disadvantages
• Additional earth filling
• C/L of the pavement is also raised (vertical alignment of
the road is changed)
 • Problems on Superelevation
• Example-1
The radius of horizontal circular curve is 100m. The design speed is 50kmph
and the design coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
• Calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to
develop.
• Calculate the coefficient Of friction needed if no superelevation is provided.
• Calculate the equilibrium superelevation if the pressure on inner and outer
wheels should be equal.
•
Example-2
A two lane road with design speed 80kmph has horizontal curve of radius
480m. Design the rate of superelevation for mixed traffic. By how much should
the outer edges of the pavement be raised with respect to the centre line , if the
pavement is rotated with respect to the centre line.
• Example-3
• Design the super elevation for a horizontal highway curve of radius 500m
and speed 100kmph
•
Example-4
• The design speed of highway is 80kmph. There is horizontal curve of
radius 200m on a certain locality. Calculate the superelevation needed to
maintain this speed.
 • RADIUS OF HORIZONTAL CURVE
• The radius of the horizontal curve is an important design aspect of the geometric
design. The maximum comfortable speed on a horizontal curve depends on the radius of
the curve. Although it is possible to design the curve with maximum super elevation and
coefficient of friction, it is not desirable because re-alignment would be required if the
design speed is increased in future. Therefore, a ruling radius, R-ruling can be derived by
assuming maximum super elevation and coefficient of friction.

• Ideally, the radius of the curve should be higher than R-ruling. However, very large
curves are also not desirable. Setting out large curves in the field becomes difficult. In
addition, it also enhances driving strain.
• Example-I
• Calculate the values of ruling minimum and absolute minimum
radius Of horizontal curve of a national highway in plane terrain.
Assume ruling design speed and minimum design speed values as
100 and 80 kmph respectively.
 Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves

 On horizontal curves, especially when they are not of very large radii, it is
common to widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width,

 Widening is needed for the following reasons :

 The driver experience difficulties in steering around the curve.

 The vehicle occupies a greater width as the rear wheel don’t track the front wheel.
known as ‘Off tracking’

 For greater visibility at curve, the driver have tendency not to follow the central
path of the lane, but to use the outer side at the beginning of the curve.

 While two vehicle cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is psychological

tendency to maintain a greater clearance between the vehicle for safety.
 OFF TRACKING
 An automobile has a rigid wheel base and only the front wheels can be
turned, when this vehicle takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the
rear wheel do not follow the same path as that of the front wheels. This
phenomenon is called off tracking.

 The required extra widening of the pavement at the horizontal curves

depends on the length of the wheel base of the vehicle ‘l’, radius of the
curve ‘R’ and the psychological factors.
 Analysis of extra widening on curves

It is divided into two parts;

 Mechanical widening (Wm): the widening required to account for

the off tracking due to the rigidity of wheel base is called mechanical
widening
 Psychological widening (Wps): extra width of the pavement is also

provided for psychological reasons such as , to provide for greater

maneuverability of steering at high speed, to allow for the extra space
for overhangs of vehicles and to provide greater clearance for
crossing and overturning vehicles on curve.

Total widening W = Wps+ Wm

 Mechanical Widening
.

Where, R = Mean radius of the curve in m, n=no. of traffic lanes

l = Length of Wheel base of longest vehicle , m ( l = 6.0 m or 6.1m for

commercial vehicles)

V= design speed, kmph

Psychological Widening

V = Design speed of the vehicle, km/h R = Radius of the curve, m

Total extra widening = Mechanical widening
+Psychological Widening

.
 Problems on extra widening

1) Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of width 7m on a

horizontal curve of radius 200m if the longest wheel base of vehicle
expected on the road is 6.5m. Design speed is 65kmph.

• 2) Find the total width of a pavement on a horizontal curve for a new

national highway to be aligned along a rolling terrain with a ruling
minimum radius. Assume necessary data.

• 3) Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement required on a

horizontal curve of radius 700m on a two lane highway, the design speed
being [Link] wheel base l=6m.
 Method of introducing extra widening

 With transition curve: increase the width at an approximately uniform

rate along the transition curve - the extra width should be continued over
the full length of circular curve
 Without transition curves: provide two-third widening on tangent and the
remaining one-third on the circular curve beyond the tangent point
 With transition curve: Widening is generally applied equally on both
sides of the carriageway

 Without transition curve: the entire widening should be done on inner

• side

 On sharp curves of hill roads: the entire widening should be done on

inner side
Horizontal transition curves

 When a non circular curve is introduce between a straight and a circular curve
has a varying radius which decreases from infinity at the straight end (tangent
point) to the desired radius of the circular curve at the other end (curve point)
for the gradual introduction of centrifugal force is known as transition curve.
Objectives for providing transition curve
 To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle. This
increases the comfort of passengers.

 To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and
security

 To provide gradual introduction of super elevation

 To provide gradual introduction of extra widening.

 To enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.

Type of transition curve

 Spiral or clothoid
 Cubic parabola
 Lemniscate
 IRC recommends spiralas the transition curve because it fulfills the
requirement of an ideal transition curve, that is;
 rate of change or centrifugal acceleration is consistent
 Radius of the transition curve is infinity at the straight edge and
changes to R at the curve point (Ls ᾳ1/R)and calculation and field
implementation is very easy.
Length of transition curve
 Case-1:Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

Where,

Ls= length of transition curve in ‘m’

C= allowable rate of change of centrifugal accleration, m/ sec²
R= Radius of the circular curve in ‘m’
case-2:Rate of introduction of super-elevation
 If the pavement is rotated about the center line.

If the pavement is rotated about the inner edge

Where ,
W is the width of pavement

We is the extra widening

Rate of change of superelevation of 1 in N

Case-3:By empirical formula
According to IRC standards:
 For plain and rolling terrain:

 For mountainous and steep terrain:

NOTE: The design length of transition curve(Ls) will be the

highest value of case-1,2 and 3
 Problems on transition curve
1) Calculate the length of the transition curve using the following data, V=60kmph, R=220m, allowable rate of super elevation when the pavement is rotated about the center line= 1 in 150,
Pavement width including extra widening is 7.5m

2) The radius of a horizontal curve is 400m, the total pavement width at curve is 7.6m and super elevation is 0.07. design the transition curve length for a speed of 100kmph. Assume pavement to be rotated about inner edge.

3)Calculate the length of transition curve for a design speed of 80kmph at horizontal curve of radius 300m in a rural area. Assume suitable data.
Problem 1: The SH passing through a rolling terrain has a horizontal curve of
radius equal to the ruling radius . Calculate ruling radius, super elevation, extra
widening, length of transition curve, SSD, OSD & ISD. Ruling design speed
80kmph. Assume 2 lane pavement and the length of the wheel base is 6m.
Pavement is rotated about the center line at a ratio of 1 in 150.

Problem 2: A NH passing through a flat terrain has a horizontal curve of radius

equal to the ruling minimum radius. If the design speed is 100 kmph. Calculate
absolute minimum sight distance, super elevation, extra widening and length of
transition curve. Assume all other necessary data's.
Vertical Alignment
 The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the center line of the
road.
 The vertical alignment consist of grade and vertical curve and it influence
the vehicle speed, acceleration, sight distance and comfort in vehicle
movements at high speed.
 Vertical alignment

• The vertical alignment of a road consists of gradients(straight lines in

a vertical plane) and vertical curves. The vertical alignment is usually
drawn as a profile, which is a graph with elevation as vertical axis and the
horizontal distance along the centre line of the road as the horizontal axis.
Just as a circular curve is used to connect horizontal straight stretches of
road, vertical curves connect two gradients. When these two curves meet,
they form either convex or concave. The former is called a summit curve,
while the latter is called a valley curve. This section covers a discussion
on gradient and summit curves.
Gradient
 It is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the

horizontal. It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in x (1 vertical unit to x horizontal

unit). Some times the gradient is also expressed as a percentage i.e. n% (n in
100).
 • Gradient
• Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to
the horizontal. While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided for designing
the vertical curve.
• Representation of gradient
• The positive gradient or the ascending gradient is denoted as +n and the
negative gradient as -n. The deviation angle N is: when two grades meet, the
angle which measures the change of direction and is given by the algebraic
difference between the two grades (n1 - (-n2)) = n1 + n2 = 1 + 2. Example: 1 in
30 = 3.33% is a steep gradient, while 1 in 50 = 2% is a flatter gradient. The
gradient representation is illustrated in the figure below.
Typical Gradients (IRC)
Ruling Gradient
Limiting Gradient
Exceptional gradient
Minimum Gradient

Ruling gradient (design gradient):It is the maximum gradient

within which the designer attempts to design the vertical profile of road,
it depends on
 Type of terrain
 Length of grade
 Speed
 power of vehicles
 Presence of horizontal curves
 Mixed traffic
Limiting Gradient: Steeper than ruling gradient. In hilly roads, it may be
frequently necessary to exceed ruling gradient and adopt limiting gradient, it
depends on
 Topography

 Cost in constructing the road

Exceptional Gradient: Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients

given at unavoidable situations. They should be limited for short stretches not
exceeding about 100 m at a stretch.
Minimum gradient: This is important only at locations where surface
drainage is important. Camber will take care of the lateral drainage. But
the longitudinal drainage along the side drains require some slope for
smooth flow of water. Therefore minimum gradient is provided for
drainage purpose and it depends on the rain fall, type of soil and other site
conditions.
 A minimum of 1 in 500 may be sufficient for concrete drain and 1 in 200

for open soil drains.

 • Summit curve
• Summit curves are vertical curves with gradient upwards. They are formed
when two gradients meet as illustrated in any of the following four ways:
• 1. when a positive gradient meets another positive gradient
• 2. when positive gradient meets a at gradient.
• 3. when an ascending gradient meets a descending gradient.
• 4. when a descending gradient meets another descending gradient.

Types of summit curves

 Length of the summit curve

• The important design aspect of the summit curve is the

determination of the length of the curve which is parabolic. As noted earlier, the
length of the curve is guided by the sight distance consideration. That is, a driver
should be able to stop his vehicle safely if there is an obstruction on the other side
of the road. Equation of the parabola is given by y = ax², where
• a = N²L, where N is the deviation angle and L is the length of the In deriving the
length of the curve, two situations can arise depending on the uphill and downhill
gradients when the length of the curve is greater than the sight distance and the
length of the curve is greater than the sight distance.
 Continu…

• Let L is the length of the summit curve, S is the SSD/ISD/OSD, N is the

deviation angle, h1 driver's eye height (1.2 m), and h2 the height of the
obstruction, then the length of the summit curve can be derived for the
following two cases. The length of the summit curve can be derived from the
simple geometry as shown below:

Length of summit curve (L < S)

Length of summit curve (L > S)
SUMMIT CURVE
Length of summit curve(L) for SSD
Case-1(L > SSD)

• Case-2(L < SSD)

Length of summit curve for OSD
 Case-1(L > OSD)

 Case-2(L < OSD)

Where,
S=sight distance i.e. SSD, OSD or ISD N= deviation angle
i.e. algebraic difference between two grade
H=height of driver eye above the carriageway i.e. 1.2 m h=height of driver eye
above the carriageway i.e. 0.15 m
 Problems on summit curve
1) A vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection of two gradients +3%
and -5%. Design the length of summit curve to provide a SSD for a design speed
of 80kmph. Take f=[Link] all other data's.

2) An ascending gradients of 1 in 100 meets an descending gradient of 1 in 120.

A summit curve is to be designed for a design speed of 80kmph. So as to have
an overtaking sight distance of 470m.

3) A vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection of two grades of +1/50

and – 1/80 meet on a highway. The SSD & OSD required are 180m and 640m
respectively, but due to the sight condition the length of the curve has to be
restricted to a maximum value of 500m. Calculate the length of summit curve
needed to be fulfilled the requirement of SSD & OSD
 Vertical alignment
• Changes in topography necessitate the introduction of vertical curves. The
second curve of this type is the valley curve. This section deals with the types of
valley curve and their geometrical design.

• Valley curve
• Valley curve or sag curves are vertical curves with convexity downwards.
They are formed when two gradients meet as illustrated in any of the following
four ways:

Figure: Types of valley curve

 • Length of the valley curve
• The valley curve is made fully transitional by providing two similar transition curves
of equal length The transitional curve is set out by a cubic parabola y = bx³ where b =
2N/3L². The length of the valley transition curve is designed based on two criteria:

[Link] criteria; that is allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is limited

to a comfortable level of about 0:6m/sec³.

• 2. safety criteria; that is the driver should have adequate headlight sight distance at any
part of the country.

where L is the total length of valley curve, N is the deviation angle in radians or
tangent of the deviation angle or the algebraic difference in grades, and c is the
allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration which may be taken as 0:6m/sec³.
VALLEY CURVE
Length of valley curve for comfort condition:

Where,
N= deviation angle i.e. algebraic difference between two grade C= rate of change
of centrifugal acceleration may be taken as 0.6 m/sec³
V= speed of vehicle in kmph
 Length of valley curve for head light sight distance
Case-1(L > SSD)

 Case-2(L < SSD)

Where,
h1=height of head light above the carries way
α= inclination of focused portion of the beam of light w.r.t horizontal or beam
angle .
N= deviation angle i.e. algebraic difference between two grade. S=head light
distance is equal to SSD
Length of valley curve greater than stopping sight
distance (L > S)
 Problems on valley curve

1) Design a valley curve at the junction of a down gradient 1in30 and level
stretch. Design speed is 60kmph.

2) A valley curve is formed by a descending gradient of 2.5% which meets an

ascending gradient of 3.33%. Design the total length of valley curve if the
design speed is 100kmph to fulfill both the comfort condition and head light
sight distance requirements.

3) A valley curve is formed by a descending grade of 1 in 25 meeting an

ascending grade of 1 in 30. design the length of valley curve to fulfil both
comfort condition and head light sight distance requirements for a design
speed of 80kmph. assume the allowable rate of change of centrifugal action ,
c=0.6 m/ sec³
Grade compensation
 At the horizontal curve, due to the turning angle α of the vehicle, the curve
resistance develop is equal toT(1-Cosα).When there is a horizontal curve in
addition to the gradient, there will be a increase in resistance to fraction due to
both gradient and curve. It is necessary that in such cases the total resistance
due to grade and the curve should not exceeded the resistance due to
maximum value of the gradient specified.
 Maximum value generally taken as ruling gradient
 Thus grade compensation can be defined as the reduction in gradient at the
horizontal curve because of the additional tractive force required due to curve
resistance (T−Tcosα), which is intended to offset the extra tractive force
involved at the curve.
 IRC gave the following specification for the grade compensation.
 [Link] compensation is not required for grades flatter than 4% because
the loss of tractive force is negligible.
 [Link] compensation is (30+R)/R %, where ‘R’ is the radius of the
horizontal curve in meters.
 [Link] maximum grade compensation is limited to 75/R%.
[Link] the different types of cross selection elements with neat sketch and
explain any 4 briefly.
[Link] pavement surface characteristics
[Link] a district where rainfall is heavy, major district road of MBW pavement,
3.8 m wide, and a state highway of bituminous concrete pavement, 7.0 m wide
are to be constructed. What should be height of the crown with respect to the
edges in these two cases?
[Link] short note on:
(i)Kerbs
(ii)shoulders
(iii)footpath
(iv)median
[Link] tendency of horizontal curves
[Link] i. Analysis of OSD

ii. Factors considered in SSD

[Link] a valley curve at the junction of a down gradient 1in30 and level stretch.
Design speed is 60kmph.
[Link] is sight distance? Explain with sketches, how restrictions to sight distance
occurs on highways.

[Link] the minimum sight distance required to avoid head on collision of two cars
approaching from the opposite direction at 90 and 60kmph. Assume a coefficient of
friction is 0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50% in both cases

[Link] the analysis of super elevation

[Link] speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 70 and 40 kmph respectively on
two way traffic road. The average acceleration during overtaking may be assumed as
0.99 m/sec2.
i). Calculate safe overtaking sight distance.
ii). What is the minimum length of overtaking zone?
iii). Draw a neat sketch of the overtaking zone & show the position of the sign post.
[Link] is transition curve, mention its types? How it its length calculated

[Link] the stopping sight distance on a highway at a descending gradient

of 2% for a design speed of 80kmph. Assume other data as per IRC. Write the
analysis of stopping sight distance for both lagging and braking distance

[Link] different types of gradients.

Nptel
Reference