CHAPTER ONE

Outline
 Introduction to Database Systems
 Data handling approach
 Manual approach
 File based approach
 Database approach
 Actors on the databases
 Database Development Life-cycle

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Introduction
 Data are unorganized raw facts that are stored.
 Raw facts are seldom immediately useful to a decision

maker.
 Raw facts themselves are useless
 Data in themselves are fairly useless. But when these data

are interpreted and processed to determine its true meaning,

they become useful and can be called Information.

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Cont…
 A major requirement of any automation is to store & retrieve

data in a way that is meaningful to the end user: so the overall

purpose is to transform data into Information
 Data is raw material & plain facts that need to be processed,
structured or presented in a given context so as to make them
useful (which is Information).
 People often miss the difference between data and
information and use the words interchangeably.

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Cont…
Database: is a collection of logically related data which designed to
meet the information needs of an organization.
Database system: is a system which has the elements like the data in
the database, Hardware(client and server computers),
Software(Application program and DBMS:DDL,DML etc.) and
users(end users, application programmers, database administrator)
Database management system(DBMS): is a software package/ system
to facilitate the creation and maintenance of a computerized database.

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Data handling Approaches
 Data management passes through the different levels of development

 Manual Approach: in this approach, data storage and retrieval

follows the primitive and traditional way of data and information
handling where cards and paper are used for the purpose.

 There is intensive human labor.

 Events and objects are written on papers and cards that

are kept in files.

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Cont…
 Each of the files containing various kinds of information which
is labeled and stored in one or more cabinet.
 The cabinet could be kept on safe place for security purpose

based on the sensitivity of the information contained in it.

 Insertion and retrieval of data is done by searching first for the

right cabinet then the right file and then the information
 One could have an indexing system to facilitate accessing of data

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Cont…
Example: Let us build our address book
Full Name Telephone

Abebe A. 911 5647..

Seble K. 911 5508..
Limitation of Manual Approach
 Prone to error
 Difficult to update, retrieval and integrate
 You have the data but it is difficult to compile the information
 Significant amount of duplication of data
 Cross reference is difficult

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Cont…
Solution: a computerized approach evolved to overcome this
limitations, which is called File based approach.
File-Based Approach:
 It is an early attempt to computerize the manual system.
 This approach is a decentralized data handling method
◦ Separate files are created and stored for each application
program.
◦ Develop a file or a number of files for each different
application.
 Since every unit defines and manages its own data, the system is subjected to serious
data duplication and inconsistency problems.

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 Cont… Files Application
Data programs Users
Payroll
Payroll (Employee Payroll Reports
Department master file) programs

Invoicing
(Customer master
Accounting file; Inventory Invoicing Reports
Department Pricing file) programs

Inventory Inventory
Materials control Reports
control
Department (Inventory
programs
Master file)
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Cont…
Limitations of File-Based systems
 Limited data sharing: each unit maintains its own set of data.
Users of one unit may be unaware of potentially useful data
held by other units.
 Data Redundancy (Duplication of data in different files):
Same data is held by different units and hence waste storage
space (Uncontrolled duplication of data)
 Staff_salary (staffno, name, sex, salary)
 Staff_profile (staffno, name, position, sex, DOB, salary)
 Use of different formats for data organization: A situation
in which data organized for one application are incompatible
with data organized differently for another application

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Cont…
Separation or isolation of data: available information in
one application may not be known by other application.
Data dependency on the application.
Data Inconsistency and confusion: The most significant
problems experienced by the traditional file based
approach of data handling is the update anomalies. There
are three types of update anomalies.
Modification Anomalies: A problem experienced
when one or more data value is modified on one
application program but not on others containing the
same data set.

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Cont…
Deletion Anomalies: A problem encountered where
one record set is deleted from one application but
remain untouched in other application programs
Insertion Anomalies: A problem experienced
whenever there is a new data item to be recorded,
and the recording is not made in all the applications

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Cont…
Database Approach
 To overcome the problems of file based approach, a data
base approach is more effective.
 This approach is a centralized computerized data handling
method
 In this approach a single repository of data is maintained.
 A pool of related data is shared by multiple applications
 Rather than having separate data files, each application
uses a collection of data that is either joined or related in
the database

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Cont… Data base approach diagram
Payroll Reports
program

Payroll data
Inventory
Inventory program Reports
Database
data
management
Employee
system
Employee
Data Reports
program
Other
data
Other Reports
programs

Database Interface Applications programs Users

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Cont…
Advantages of data base approach

Avoid Data Duplication
◦ Control data redundancy in the database, instead of storing data in
redundant manner for each user.
 Maintain Data Integrity
◦ Data at different applications will be integrated together with additional
constraints to facilitate shared data resource.
 Improve decision support
◦ Improved strategic use of corporate data
◦ The database will provide information useful for decision making
 Enforce Standards
◦ The different ways of using & dealing with the data by different units of
the organization can be balanced & standardized by using database
approach.

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Enhance Data Sharing
 Standardization of data access. Two or more users can access and use
same data/ information
Less resource (Labor, time & other) requirement
 Unlike the other data handling methods, data maintenance will not
demand much resource
Enforce Security measures
 Better overall protection of the data
 The shared data can be secured by having different levels of clearance
and other data security mechanisms.
Centralized information control
 Since the data in the company is stored at one repository, it can be
controlled & managed at the central level.
 Easier modification and updating

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Cont…
Disadvantages of data based approach
 Over head cost of using a data base management system
 High initial investment in hard ware, software, and
training.
 Over head for providing security, concurrency control,
recovery and integrity functions.
 Complexity in designing and managing data
 Reduced performance due to centralization and data
independency
 High impact on the system when failure occurs to the
central system.

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Data base system
 A database is a very large, integrated and shared collection of
logically related data that is organized so that it can easily be
managed (stored, searched, accessed & updated) to meet
organizational information needs.
 Logically related data comprises entities (e.g., students,
courses), attributes (ID, Name), & relationships (e.g., Student
selam takes the course fundamental database system).

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Cont…
Metadata: the database contains not only the database itself but
also a complete description of the data stored in the database.
 This definition is stored in the system catalog, which
contains information such as the structure of each file, type
& storage format of each data item.
 The information stored is called metadata since it describes
the structure of the primary database.
A table is the primary unit of physical storage for data in a
database.
Usually a database contains multiple tables, that are
interconnected.

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Cont…
Examples of data bases:
Student records system
Medical records system
Airline bookings
Bank accounts
Stock control
Library catalogues
Product catalogues
Telephone directories
Equipment specification

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Cont…
What is a Database System?
 Database systems are designed to organize & manage large data set in an organization and
allow database users to:
 Store their data
 Update and maintain up-to-date data
 Retrieve relevant data efficiently and effectively
 Protect the database for reliable storage of the data
 Maintain consistency of the data
 Generate useful information for decision making
 A database system consists of data (the database), Software, Hardware, Guidelines and
Users.

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What is DBMS?
 A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software
package designed to store and manage databases, and controls
access to the database.
 DBMS is a powerful tool for managing large amounts of
data
 Provides a systematic method for creating, updating, storing,
retrieving data in a database.
 Popular DBMSs include :
 Access, Oracle, MySQL, SQL Server, DB2, Foxpro, etc…
 A DBMS provides an interface between a database and users
who need to access the data

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 Cont…
DBMS components
With the help of the
interface, a DBA is A DBMS can
responsible for DBMS support several
management and support related
information
systems that
provide input to,
& require specific
data from, the
DBMS
DBMS provide Query language,
specifically SQL (structured
query language)

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Cont…
Database Management System (DBMS) Functions

 The DBMS is an application program that provides an interface for the

user to access data as simple as possible. It has several other functions .

 Data storage, retrieval and update: DBMS allows users to store,
retrieve & update data, without knowing the internal structure of the
database.
 Creation and maintenance of the data dictionary: DBMS maintains
meta data about the database organization

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 Managing the facilities for sharing the database: DBMS
has to ensure that problems do not arise when two or more
users simultaneously access a record & try to update it.

 Backup and recovery: DBMS must provide the ability to

recover the database in the event of system failure.

 Security: DBMS must handle users account, & control

access to the database based on the privilege users allowed.

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Actors on the Database
Database Administrator (DBA)
 Responsible for managing the database system, authorizing access,
coordinating & monitoring uses, acquiring resources (database,
DBMS)
Database designers
 Responsible for designing the database, identifying the data to be
stored, choosing the structures to represent and store the data.
Application developers
 Responsible to write software to allow end users to interface with the
database system
End users
 The persons that use the database for querying, updating, generating
reports, etc. to achieve some goal.

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Database Development Life-
cycle
Database planning
Data analysis
Define Problems and Constraints
Database design
DBMS selection
Implementation
Testing
Operational maintenance

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Database Development Life-cycle(Cont…)
Database Planning
 A plan is used to provide frameworks that enable the manager to make
reasonable estimates of resources, cost and schedule.
 Planning activities
 Effort, cost, resource and duration estimation
 Suitable process for the execution
 Staff organization
 Risk Handling - Identification, analysis and mitigation
 Quality assurance plan, configuration management plan, etc…
Data analysis
 Gathering and developing end user data views.
 Identify the existing system and desired output
 Identify the company’s business rules and analyze their impacts.

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Database Development Life-
cycle(Cont…)
Define Problems and Constraints
◦ How does the existing system function?
◦ What input does the system require?
◦ What reports does the system generate?
◦ How is the system output used? By Whom?
◦ What are the operational relationships among
business units?
◦ What are the limits and constraints imposed on the
system?

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Database Development Life-
cycle(Cont…)
 Database Design
 Gather user and system requirements
 Create a conceptual model of the database using the Entity
Relationship model that is based on the user requirements.
 Conceptual Design: concise description of
 Entities and
 Relationship within the target application domain.
 Convert this conceptual model (E-R) into a logical database model
 Logical Design: used to ensuring via normalization procedures
and the definition of integrity rules that the stored data will be
non-redundant and properly connected.
 Attributes: identifying Primary key and Foreign key
 Mapping E-R diagram into relational schema.

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Database Development Life-
cycle(Cont…)
 Implement the normalized relations as tables in a relational database.
 Physical Design: specifies how database records are stored,
accessed and related to ensure adequate performance.
 Entity names will automatically be Table names
 Attributes will be column of the respective tables
 Identify Column data types
 Choose a DBMS :
 The selection of an appropriate DBMS to support the database
application.
 Also design the user interface and the application programs using
the selected DBMS.
 Example: SQL server or MS-SQL Server.

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Database Development Life-
cycle(Cont…)
Implementation
 The physical realization of the database and application designs.
◦ Use DDL of DBMS to create database schemas and empty
database files.
◦ Use DML to create any specified user views.

Testing
 The process of executing the application programs with the
intent of finding errors.
◦ Use carefully planned test strategies and realistic data.
◦ Demonstrates that database and application programs appear
to be working according to requirements.

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Database Development Life-
cycle(Cont…)
Operational Maintenance
The process of monitoring and maintaining the system
following installation.
Monitoring the performance of the system.
If performance falls, may require reorganization of the
database.
Maintaining and upgrading the database application
(when required).
Incorporating new requirements into the database
application.

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Database Development Life-
cycle(Cont…)
Major reasons for database development runaways
Unclear objectives
Bad Planning
No project management methodology
New Technology
Insufficient staff

All of these are relate to system management

Effective system management is key to successfully
executing a database system

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 ?
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