Endocrine

System
 Endocrine System

• The endocrine system acts with nervous

system to coordinate the body's activities.

• Both systems enable cells to communicate

with others by using chemical messengers.

• The endocrine system uses chemical

messengers called hormones that are
transported by the circulatory system
(blood). They act on target cells that may
be anywhere in the body.
• Target cells have receptors that are specific to
the signaling molecules. The binding of
hormones to the receptors on or within the
target cell produces a response by the target
cell.
 There are three general classes (groups) of
hormones:

• steroid hormones
including prostaglandins which function especially in
a variety of female functions (aspirin inhibits synthesis of
prostaglandins, some of which cause “cramps”) and the sex
hormones all of which are lipids made from cholesterol

• amino acid derivatives

(like epinephrine) which are derived from amino
acids, especially tyrosine

• peptide hormones
(like insulin) which is the most numerous/diverse
group of hormones.
The major human endocrine glands
include:
 Hypothalamus

• The hypothalamus is part of the

brain.
• It maintains homeostasis (constant
internal conditions) by regulating the
internal environment
• examples: heart rate, body
temperature, water balance, and the
secretions of the pituitary gland.
 Pituitary Gland

• The pituitary contains two lobes: the

anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the
posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)
• Hormones released by the posterior lobe
are synthesized by neurons in the
hypothalamus
• Unlike the posterior lobe, the anterior lobe
produces the hormones that it releases.
 Posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis)

• The posterior pituitary contains

axons of neurons that extend from
the hypothalamus. Hormones are
stored in and released from axon
endings in the posterior lobe of the
pituitary.
Oxytocin

• stimulates uterine contractions of labor

that are needed to move the child out
through the birth canal.
• The hormone stimulates the release of milk
from the mammary glands by causing
surrounding cells to contract. After birth,
stimulation of the breast by the infant
feeding stimulates the posterior pituitary
to produce oxyticin.
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

• hormone increases the permeability

of the distal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct of the kidney nephron
resulting in less water in the urine.
The urine becomes more
concentrated as water is conserved.
The secretion of ADH is controlled by a
negative feedback mechanism as
follows:

concentrated blood (too little water) 

hypothalamus  ADH  kidney

 reabsorbs water, makes blood more dilute

 Within the kidney, fluid and dissolved substances are
filtered from the blood and pass through tubules where some of
the water and dissolved substances are reabsorbed. The
remaining liquid and wastes form urine.
Anterior Pituitary

• The hypothalamus
produces hormones
that travel in blood
vessels to the anterior
pituitary, stimulating it
to produce other
hormones.
• The hormones
produced by the
hypothalamus are
called hypothalamic-
releasing hormones.
• The anterior pituitary produces at least six
different hormones. Each one is produced
in response to a specific hypothalamic-
releasing hormone.
• The blood vessel that carries
hypothalamic-releasing hormones from the
hypothalamus to the pituitary is called a
portal vein because it connects two
capillary beds. One capillary bed is in the
hypothalamus and the other is in the
anterior pituitary.
Release-inhibiting hormones produced by the
hypothalamus inhibit the pituitary from
secreting its hormones.
There are six different hormones produced by the
anterior lobe. Three of these have direct effects on
the body, the other three control other glands.
 Anterior Pituitary Hormones that
Directly Affect the Body

Growth Hormone (GH or Somatotropic

Hormone)

• Growth hormone stimulates body cells to grow. If

too little hormone is produced, pituitary dwarfism
results. The secretion of too much hormone
results in a pituitary giant.
• Acromegaly is a genetic disease in which growth
hormone is produced throughout a persons
lifetime.
Prolactin

• Prolactin is produced in quantity after

childbirth.
• It stimulates the development of the
mammary glands and the production
of milk.
• It is also involved in the metabolism
of fats and carbohydrates.
Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone
(MSH)

• This hormone causes skin color

changes in some fishes, amphibians,
and reptiles.
• In humans, it stimulates the
melanocytes to synthesize melanin.
 Anterior pituitary hormones that
regulate other glands

• The pituitary also controls other glands and is often

referred to as the "master gland"

Three kinds of pituitary hormones that regulate other glands:

• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)  thyroid  thyroxin

• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)  adrenal cortex 
cortisol
• Gonadotropic Hormones (FSH and LH)  ovaries and testes
 sex hormones; controls gamete production
 Negative Feedback Inhibition
• Hormone secretions
by glands that are
under the control of
the hypothalamus are
controlled by
negative feedback.
When the hormone
levels are high, they
inhibit the
hypothalamus and
anterior pituitary,
resulting in a decline
in their levels.
 Thyroid gland

• The thyroid produces thyroxin (also called

T4 because it contains 4 iodine atoms) and
triiodothyronine (also called T3 because it
contains 3 iodine atoms).
• Both T4 and T3 have similar effects on
target cells. In most target tissues, T4 is
converted to T3. They influence metabolic
rate, growth, and development.
• Thyroxin production is regulated by a
negative feedback mechanism in which it
inhibits the hypothalamus from stimulating
the thyroid.
• Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroids produce
too little hormone. In adults, it results in lethargy
and weight gain. In infants, it causes cretinism, which
is characterized by dwarfism, mental retardation,
and lack of sexual maturity. Administering thyroid
hormones treats these affects.
• Too much T3 and T4 (hyperthyroidism) increases
heart rate and blood pressure, and causes weight
loss.
• Iodine is needed to manufacture thyroid hormones.
A deficiency in iodine prevents the synthesis of
thyroid hormones which, in turn, results in an excess
of thyroid stimulating hormone being produced by
the anterior pituitary. A goiter results when
constant stimulation of the thyroid causes it to
enlarge.
Calcitonin
• The thyroid gland also secretes calcitonin, which stimulates
calcium deposition in the bones. This is the opposite of the
action of parathyroid hormone

• Calcitonin production is not regulated by the anterior pituitary.

It's secretion is stimulated by high calcium levels in the blood
 Parathyroid glands
• The parathyroid glands are 4 small glands embedded in
posterior surface of the thyroid gland.
• They secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which
increases blood levels of Ca++.
• Bone tissue acts as a storage reservoir for calcium and
PTH stimulates the removal of calcium from the bone to
increase levels in the blood.
• It increases the kidney’s reabsorption of Ca++ so that
less is lost in urine.
• It activates vitamin D which enhances Ca++ absorption
from food in the gut.
• Secretion is regulated by the Ca++ level in the blood, (not
hypothalamic or pituitary hormones)
 Adrenal Glands
• Each kidney has
an adrenal gland
located above
it. The adrenal
gland is divided
into an inner
medulla and an
outer cortex.
Adrenal Cortex

• The outer layer of an adrenal gland is the

adrenal cortex.
• It produces three kinds of steroid
hormones. These are glucocorticoids,
mineralocorticoids, and small amounts of
sex hormones. The major glucocorticoid is
cortisol and the major mineralocorticoid is
aldosterone.
Cortisol (A Glucocorticoid)

• Glucocorticoids are produced in response to

stress.
• Cortisol raises the level of glucose in the blood by
stimulating the liver to produce glucose from
stored non-carbohydrate sources such as proteins
and lipids and to release it into the blood.
• Cortisol reduces swelling by inhibiting the immune
system. Swelling of tissues due to injury or
infection is discussed in the chapter on the
immune system. The drug prednisone, derived
from cortisol, is used to treat inflammation.
Negative feedback control of cortisol
level
Aldosterone (A Mineralocorticoid)

• Aldosterone secretion is not under the control

of the anterior pituitary.
• It acts primarily on the kidney to promote
absorption of sodium and excretion of
potassium.
• Increased sodium levels contributes to the
retention of water and thus increased blood
volume. In the absence of aldosterone, sodium
is excreted and the lower sodium levels result
in decreased blood volume and lower blood
pressure.
• The presence of too much blood in the circulatory system
stimulates the heart to produce atrial natriuretic factor.
This hormone inhibits the release of aldosterone by the
adrenal cortex and ADH by the posterior pituitary causing
the kidneys to excrete excess water. The loss of water and
sodium contribute to lowering the blood volume.
Adrenal Medulla
• The adrenal medulla is composed of modified neurons
that secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline
and noradrenaline) under conditions of stress.
• These hormones are released in response to a variety
of stresses and stimulate the fight- or- flight response
of the sympathetic nervous system. It results in a
faster heart rate, faster blood flow, and dilated
airways to facilitate oxygen flow to the lungs. In
addition, the level of glucose in the blood is increased
to make energy more available.
• Their secretion is controlled by brain centers (including
hypothalamus) via sympathetic nerves, not by pituitary
hormones.
 Gonads
• LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary stimulate the gonads
(ovaries and testes).
• LH stimulates the testes to produce several kinds of steroid
hormones called androgens. One of these androgens is
testosterone, the main sex hormone in males.
• LH stimulates the ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone,
the female sex hormones.
• Sex hormones are responsible for the development of secondary
sex characteristics, which develop at puberty. Some examples of
secondary sex characteristics in males are deepening of the voice
(due to a large larynx), growth of facial hair, and muscle
development. Some secondary sex characteristics in females are
development of the breasts and broadening of the pelvis. Both
sexes show increased activity of sweat glands and sebaceous
glands (oil glands in the skin), and growth of pubic and axillary
(armpit) hair.
FSH controls gamete (egg or sperm)
production
 Pancreas

• The pancreas is a digestive gland that

secretes digestive enzymes into the
duodenum through the pancreatic duct.

• The islets of Langerhans are groups of

cells within the pancreas that secrete
insulin and glucagon. The islets are
endocrine glands because they are
ductless; the circulatory system carries
their hormones to target cells.
Insulin
• Insulin promotes the removal of glucose from the blood for
storage as glycogen (muscle, liver), fats (fat cells), and protein.
• It promotes the buildup of fats and proteins and inhibits their
use as an energy source.

Glucagon
• Glucagon is produced in the islets of Langerhans but by
different cells than those that produce insulin.
• The effects of glucagon are opposite those of insulin. It raises
the level of glucose in the blood.
• It is normally secreted between meals to maintain the
concentration of glucose in the blood.
 Thymus Gland

• The thymus grows during childhood but

gradually decreases in size after puberty.
• Lymphocytes that have passed through the
thymus are transformed into T cells.
• Lymphocytes are white blood cells that
function to fight infection. There are two
kinds of lymphocytes: B cells and T cells. T
cells participate in identifying and
destroying body cells that are infected.
• Thymus
hormones called
thymosins
stimulate the
development and
differentiation
of T
lymphocytes.
They play a role
in regulating the
immune system
by stimulating
other kinds of
immune cells as
well.
 Pineal Gland
• This gland is located near the center of the brain in humans,
and is stimulated by nerves from the eyes.
• In some other animals, the pineal gland is closer to the skin
and directly stimulated by light (some lizards even have a
third eye).
• The pineal gland secreted melatonin at night when it’s dark,
thus secretes more in winter when the nights are longer.
• Melatonin promotes sleep (makes you feel sleepy).
• It also affects reproductive functions by depressing the
activity of the gonads.
• Additionally, it affects thyroid and adrenal cortex functions.
• In some animals, melatonin affects skin pigmentation.
Because melatonin production is affected by the amount of
light to which a person is exposed, this is tied to circadian
rhythm (having an activity cycle of about 24 hours), annual
cycles, and biological clock functions.