Lecture 10 Radiation from Apertures

 Huygens-Fresnel’s principle
 Field Equivalence Principle
 The vector potentials of magnetic and electric currents. Radiation field
 Radiation Fields from Apertures
 Directivity and Effective Area of Apertures
 Uniform Apertures
 Rectangular Apertures
 Circular Apertures
 Open-ended Waveguide
Huygens-Fresnel principle
The radiation fields from aperture antennas, such as slots, open-ended
waveguides, horns, reflector and lens antennas, are determined from the
knowledge of the fields over the aperture of the antenna.

The aperture fields become the sources of the radiated fields at large distances.
This is a variation of the Huygens-Fresnel principle, which states that the points on
each wave front become the sources of secondary spherical waves. They are
propagating outwards and their superposition generates the next wave front.

Fig.10.1. Secondary waves used to construct successive wave fronts

2
1629 -1695 1788 -1827

Fig .10.2. plane wave incident on a slit in screen. The edge diffraction
leads to spreading of the radiation from slit

3
Let Ea,Ha be the tangential fields over an aperture A, as shown in Fig. 10.3.
These fields are assumed to be known and are produced by the sources to the
left of the screen. The problem is to determine the radiated fields E(r),H(r) at
some far observation point.

Fig. 10.3. Radiated fields from an aperture.

4
Equivalence Principle
The equivalence principle is a consequence of the Uniqueness Theorem: A
solution satisfying Maxwell Equations and the boundary conditions is unique.

Fig . 10.4. The equivalence principle

1. Original problem (a): Sources inside the volume V, bounded by the
surface S, generate a field (E, H ) inside and outside of the volume V .
2. Equivalent problem (b): (E,H) outside V and field (E1,H1) inside V,
are generated by the currents (Js1, Ms1) on S, where
J s1  nˆ  H  H1  ( electreic surface current density ) (10.1)
M s1   nˆ  E  E1  ( magnetic surface current density )
3. Equivalent problem (c): (E,H) outside V , zero field is inside V :
E1=H1=0 , currents (Js , Ms) on S , where
5
 J s  nˆ  H ( electreic surface current density )
(10.2)
M s   nˆ  E ( magnetic surface current density )
To further simplify , we will consider

Case 1: Perfect Electric Conductor (PEC), No contribution from Js .

Case 2: Perfect Magnetic Conductor (PMC), No contribution from Ms.

6
The vector potentials of magnetic and electric currents, Radiation field

To calculate the fields, first let us find the vector potential due to equivalent
electric and magnetic currents:
e  jkr
As    J r  e jkr 
dS 
4r
s
S

e  jkr (10.5)
Am    s
M r  e jkr 
dS 
4r S
In the far field approximation one can obtain


E As   j As θˆ  Asˆ ,  (10.6)
H Am   j A m θˆ  Amˆ 
Since in far field, the fields can be approximate by spherical TEM waves,


E Am  ZH Am   jZ Am ˆ  Amˆ  (10.7)

Thus the total electric field can be found by


E  E As  E Am   j As  ZAm ˆ  As  ZAm ˆ  (10.8)

9
Radiation field from aperture

Let (Ea , Ha) be the aperture fields, then

e  jkr
As   nˆ   H a e jkr dS 
4r Sa
 jkr (10.9)
e
A m   nˆ   Ea e jkr dS 
4r Sa

Let
(10.10)

Q   H a e jkr dS 
Sa

P   Ea e jkr dS 
Sa

10
 0bservation point

y
k
ky x

0 kx 
kz z

Fig. 10.6 The spherical coordinate system with the origin at the aperture centre

Using the spherical coordinate system shown in Fig. 10.6 we get

k x  k sin  cos  , k y  k sin  sin  , k z  k cos 

and
k  r  k x x  k y y  k x sin  cos   y sin  sin   (10.11)

11
Thus projection of the vectors (10.10) become forms

Px   Eax x, ye jk  x sin cos  y sin sin dxdy

Sa

Py   Eay x, ye jk  x sin cos  y sin sin dxdy

Sa

Qx   H ax x, ye jk  x sin cos  y sin sin dxdy

Sa (10.12)

Q y   H ay x, ye jk  x sin cos  y sin sin dxdy

Sa

Using (10.12 ) and (10.10) vectors (10.9 ) can be rewritten as

e  jkr
As    Qy xˆ  Qx yˆ 
4r
e  jkr
A m    Py xˆ  Px yˆ  (10.13)
4r
12
 or in spherical coordinate system

As  
e  jkr ˆ
4r
 
θ cos  Qx sin   Q y cos   ˆQx cos   Q y sin  

A m  
e  jkr ˆ
4r
 
θ cos  Px sin   Py cos   ˆPx cos   Py sin  
(10.14)

Using Eq. (10.6)-(10.8) , we have

e  jkr
E  jk
4r
Py cos   Px sin   Z cos  Q y cos   Qx sin   
(10.15)
e  jkr
E  jk
4r
cos  Py cos   Px sin   Z Q y sin   Qx cos   
If the aperture fields are TEM waves, then

1
H a  nˆ  Ea (10.16)
Z

13
This implies

e  jkr 1  cos 
E  jk
2r 2
Px cos   Py sin  
(10.17)
e  jkr 1  cos 
E  jk
2r 2
Py cos   Px sin  

Full Vector Form

e  jkr
E   jA s  jZ A m  r   jk r   n  Ea  Z r  n  Ha e jkrdS  (10.18)
4r Sa

14
Directivity and Effective Area of Apertures
For any aperture, given the radiation fields Eθ, Eφ of Eqs. (10.17), the
corresponding radiation intensity is:
U  ,    r 2 r  r 2
1
2Z
2 2
E  E  r 2
1
2Z

E ,  
2
(10.19)

Because the aperture radiates only into the right half-space 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2, the total
radiated power and the effective isotropic radiation intensity will be:
(10.20)

The directive gain is computed by D(θ,φ)= U(θ,φ)/UI, and the normalized gain
by g(θ,φ)= U(θ,φ)/Umax. For a typical aperture, the maximum intensity Umax is
towards the forward direction θ = 0o. In the case of a Huygens source, we have:
 
2
k 2  1  cos  
U  ,    2  
2 2
 x P cos   P sin   P cos   P sin 
8 Z 
y y x
2 
Assuming that the maximum is towards θ = 0o, we find for the maximum
intensity:
U max 
8 Z

k2
2
2
 Px cos   Py sin   Py cos   Px sin 
2

 0
(10.21)

k 2

8 Z
2
P  P 
x
2
y
2

 0

k
8 2 Z
2
P
2
max

15
where |P|2max =[|Px|2 + |Py|2 ]θ=0. Setting k = 2π/λ, we have:
1 2❑
𝑈 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
| 𝑷| 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (10.22)
2𝜆 𝑍
It follows that the normalized gain will be:
2
2
Px cos   Py sin   Py cos   Px sin 
2
(10.23)
 1  cos  
g  ,       2
 2  P max
This simplifies further into:
2
 1  cos  P ,  
2 2
 1  cos 
2
P  P 2

g  ,     (10.24)
x y
  2
   2
 2  P max  2  P max

The square root of the gain is the (normalized) field strength:

E  ,    1  cos  P ,  
 g  ,      (10.25)
Emax  2  P max

The power computed by Eq. (10.20) is the total power that is radiated
outwards from a half-sphere of large radius r. An alternative way to compute
Prad is to invoke energy conservation and compute the total power that flows
into the right half-space through the aperture. Assuming a Huygens source,
we have:
16
 1
 E r dS 
2
 (10.26)
a
2Z A
Because θ = 0 corresponds to kx = ky = 0, it follows from the Fourier transform
definition (10.10) that:

| | | |
❑ 2 ❑ 2

| 𝑷| 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∫ 𝐄 𝑎( 𝐫′ )𝑒 𝑗 𝐤 ∙ 𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑆′ = ∫ 𝐄 𝑎 ( 𝐫 ) 𝑑𝑆′

2❑ ′

𝐴 ❑ 𝑘𝑥 =𝑘𝑦 =0 𝐴
Therefore, the maximum intensity is given by:
2
1 1
 E rdS 
2
U max  P max  (10.27)
22 Z 22 Z
a
A

Dividing (10.27) by (10.26), we find the directivity:

(10.28)

It follows that the maximum effective area of the aperture is:

(10.29)

17
and the aperture efficiency:

(10.30)

The uniform apertures achieve the highest directivity and have effective areas
equal to their geometrical areas.

Because the integrand in the numerator of ea depends both on the magnitude

and the phase of Ea, it proves convenient to separate out these effects by
defining the aperture taper efficiency or loss, eatl, and the phase error efficiency
or loss, epel, as follows:

(10.31)

so that ea becomes the product:

(10.32)
18
Uniform Apertures
In uniform apertures, the fields Ea, Ha are assumed to be constant over the
aperture area. Fig. 10.7 shows the examples of a rectangular and a circular
aperture. For convenience, we will assume a Huygens source.

Fig. 10.7 Uniform rectangular and circular apertures.

The field Ea can have an arbitrary direction, with constant x- and y-

components,. Because Ea is a constant, its Fourier transform becomes:

19
P ,     Af  ,  Ea (10.33)

where we introduced the normalized scalar quantity:

(10.34)

The quantity f(θ,) depends on the assumed geometry of the aperture and it,
alone, determines the radiation pattern. Noting that the quantity |Ea| cancels out
from the ratio in the gain (10.24) and that f(0,)= (1/A)  A dS’ = 1, we find for
the normalized gain and field strengths:

(10.35)

20
Rectangular Apertures

For a rectangular aperture of sides a, b, the area integral (10.34) is separable

in the x and y-directions:

where we placed the origin of the r' integration in the middle of the aperture. The
above integrals result in the sinc-function patterns:

(10.35)

where we defined the quantities vx, vy :

(10.36)

21
The pattern simplifies along the two principal planes, the xz- and yz-planes,
corresponding to φ = 0o and φ = 90o. We have:

(10.37)

Fig. 10.8 shows the three-dimensional pattern of Eq. (10.35) as a function of

the independent variables vx, vy, for aperture dimensions a = 8λ and b = 4λ.
The x, y separability of the pattern is evident:

Fig. 10.8. Radiation pattern of rectangular aperture (a=8λ, b=4λ). 22

As the polar angles vary over 0 ≤ θ ≤ 90o and 0 ≤  ≤ 360o, the quantities vx and
vy vary over the limits −a/λ ≤ vx ≤ a/λ and −b/λ ≤ vy ≤ b/λ. In fact, the physically
realizable values of vx, vy are those that lie in the ellipse in the vxvy-plane:
(10.38)

The realizable values of vx, vy are referred to as the visible region. The graph in
Fig. 10.8. restricts the values of vx, vy within that region.
The radiation pattern consists of a narrow mainlobe directed towards the
forward direction θ = 0o and several sidelobes.

Fig. 10.9. Radiation patterns along the two principal planes (a = 8λ, b = 4λ).
23
Circular Apertures

For a circular aperture of radius a, the pattern integral (10.34) can be done
conveniently using cylindrical coordinates. The cylindrical symmetry implies that
f(θ,) will be independent of .

Therefore, for the purpose of computing the integral (10.34), we may set  = 0.
We have then . Writing , we have:

(10.40)

The - and ρ-integrations can be done using the following integral

representations for the Bessel functions J0(x) and J1(x) :

(10.41)

24
Then Eq. (10.41) gives:

(10.42)

This is the well-known Airy pattern for a circular aperture. The function f(θ)
is normalized to unity at θ = 0o, because J1(x) behaves like J1(x)~ x/2 for small x.

Fig. 10.8 shows the three-dimensional field pattern (10.35) as a function of the
independent variables vx = (a/λ)sinθcosφ and vy = (a/λ)sinθsinφ, for an
aperture radius of a = 3λ. The obliquity factor was not included as it makes little
difference near the main lobe.

The visible region is the circle on the vxvy-plane:

(10.43)

25
Fig. 10.10. Radiation pattern of circular aperture (a = 3λ).

Fig. 10.11 shows the radiation pattern of Eq. (10.35) as a function of θ, for the
case a = 3λ. The obliquity factor was included.

26
The first-null angle θnull = 0.6098λ/a is the so-called Rayleigh diffraction limit
for the nominal angular resolution of optical instruments, such as microscopes
and telescopes. It is usually stated in terms of the diameter D = 2a of the optical
aperture:

(10.44)

27
Open-ended
CircAperturesular
Waveguide
The aperture fields over an open-ended waveguide are not uniform over the
aperture. The standard assumption is that they are equal to the fields that would
exist if the guide were to be continued
Fig. 10.12. shows a waveguide aperture of dimensions a > b. Putting the origin
in the middle of the aperture, we assume that the tangential aperture fields
Ea, Ha are equal to those of the TE10 mode. We have from Eq. (4.74):

  x  1   x  k Z (10.45)
E x x  E0 cos , H x x     E0 cos , where Z H  Z
 a  ZH  a  10   
2

1  
 2a 

Fig.10.12 . Electric field over a waveguide aperture. 28

 2
  
For larger apertures, such as a > 2λ, we may set 1     1
 2a 
For smaller apertures, such as 0.5λ ≤ a ≤ 2λ, the radiated fields are given by
Eq. (10.17), with Px=0 :
e  jkr 1  cos 
E  jk Py sin 
2r 2
(10.46)
e  jkr 1  cos 
E  jk Py cos 
2r 2
where Py(θ,φ) is the aperture Fourier transform of Ey(x), that is,

Py

(10.47)

The y’-integration is the same as that for a uniform line aperture. For the x’-
integration, we use the definite integral:

29
It follows that:

Py (10.48)

Where and , or

(10.49)

The normalized gains along the two principal planes are given as follows.
For the xz- or the H-plane, we set φ = 0o, which gives Eθ = 0:
E  
2
1  cos  cos x 
2 2
a
g H      , x  sin 
E
2
2 1  4 x
2
 (10.50)
max

And, for the yz- or E-plane, we set φ = 90o, which gives Eφ = 0:

E   cos y 
2 2 2
1  cos  b (10.51)
g E      , y  sin 
E
2
2  y 
max
30
The waveguide is not a high-gain antenna. Increasing the dimensions a, b is
impractical and also would allow the propagation of higher modes, making it
very difficult to restrict operation to the TE10 mode.
Next, we derive an expression for the directivity and gain of the waveguide
aperture. The maximum intensity is obtained at θ = 0o :
2 4ab 
2
1 1 1
E0,    2 Py 0,    2 E 0
2 2
U max (10.52)
2Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
The total power transmitted through the aperture and radiated away is the power
propagated down the waveguide, that is,
1 2
(10.53)
Prad  E0 ab
4Z H
It follows that the gain/directivity of the aperture will be:
U 4 8 Z
G  4 max  2 2 ab  H
Prad   Z
Assuming ZH  Z, we have:

(10.54)

Thus, the effective area of the waveguide aperture is Aeff = 0.81(ab) and the
aperture efficiency e = 0.81. 31
Figure 10.13. 3D - field pattern of a TE10 –mode rectangular waveguide
mounted on an infinite ground plane (a=3, b=2)
32
Horn Antennas

The only practical way to increase the directivity of a waveguide is to flare out
its ends into a horn. Fig. 10.13 shows three types of horns: The H-plane sectoral
horn in which the long side of the waveguide (the a-side) is flared, the E-plane
sectoral horn in which the short side is flared, and the pyramidal horn in which
both sides are flared.

Fig. 10.13. H-plane , E-plane, and Pyramidal Horn

The pyramidal horn is the most widely used antenna for feeding large
microwave dish antennas and for calibrating them. The sectoral horns may be
considered as special limits of the pyramidal horn.

We will discuss only the pyramidal case as the most widely used antenna
33
 (10.55)

Fig. 10.14 shows the geometry in more detail. The two lower figures are the
cross sectional views along the xz- and yz-planes. It follows from the geometry
relationships (10.56) between various lengths and angels . 34
The two expressions are equal to within the assumed approximation order. The
length Δa is the maximum deviation of the radial distance at the edge of the horn plane,
that is, at x = ±A/2. For any other distance x along the A-side of the horn, and
distance y along the B-side, the deviations will be:

(10.56)

35
 (10.57)

To account for phase differences and , the aperture electric field is assumed to
have the form:

(10.58)

(10.59)
Z

The aperture fields can be rewritten by replacing maximum phase deviation in

radians and by the maximum deviation in cycles

(10.60)

36
As the result, one can obtained

(10.61)

Z
where
(10.62)

As for open- ended waveguide the Horn Radiation Fields are obtained from
Eq. (10.46): e  jkr 1  cos 
E  jk Py sin  (10.63)
2r 2
e  jkr 1  cos 
E  jk Py cos 
2r 2
where
F1  x ,  a F0  y ,  b 
AB
Py  ,    E0 (10.64)
4
and factors F1 and F0 can be used in the following simplify form

(10.65)
37
 By substitution (10.64) into (10.63) we finally obtain

(10.66)

Using horn radiation fields (10.66) the Horn Radiation Patterns can be
calculated.
The radiation intensity is , so that the normalized gain:

1 2
❑ 𝜃| 1 ( 𝑥 𝑏 )|
2
2 | 0|
2 2
𝑈 (𝜃 , 𝜙)= 𝐸 ( 𝐴𝐵 ) 𝑐 𝐹 𝜈 , 𝜎 𝑎) 𝐹 0( 𝑦
𝜈 , 𝜎 (10.67)
32 𝑍 𝜆
Assuming that the maximum intensity is towards the forward direction, that is, at
vx = vy = 0, we have:
1 2
𝐸0| 𝐴𝐵 | 𝐹 1 ( 0 , 𝜎 𝑎 ) 𝐹 0 ( 0 , 𝜎 𝑏 )|
2
2|
2
𝑈 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( ) (10.68)
32 𝑍 𝜆

38
 (10.69)

Similarly, the H- and E-plane gains corresponding to φ = 0o and φ = 90o are:

(10.70)

The mainlobe/sidelobe characteristics of the gain functions gH(θ) and gE(θ) depend
essentially on the two functions:

(10.71)

Fig. 10.15 shows these functions for the following values of the σ-parameters:
σa =[0, 1.2593, 1.37, 1.4749, 1.54] and σb = [0, 0.7375, 1.0246, 1.37, 1.54]. The
values σa = 1.2593 and σb = 1.0246 are the optimum values that maximize the horn
directivity (they are close to the commonly used values of σa = √1.5 = 1.2247
and σb = 1.) 39
Fig. 10.15. Gain functions for different σ-parameters.

40
Fig. 10.16 shows the H- and E-plane gains of a horn with sides A = 4λ and
B = 3λ and for the optimum values of the σ-parameters. The 3-dB angle widths to be:
Δθa = 19.85o and Δθb = 18.09o. The graphs show also a 3-dB gain circle as it
intersects the gain curves at the 3-dB angles, which are Δθa/2 and Δθb/2.

Fig. 10.16. H- and E-plane gains for A = 4λ, B = 3λ, and σa = 1.2593,
σb = 1.0246.
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